2. Functions of Media
Surveillance
Public – reporting of the new for the public
Private – motivations of individuals to consume
Interpretation
Placing news into context
Socialization
Transmission of values that prepare people to fit into cultural
setting
Manipulation
Creation of news in form of investigation, muckracking
3. Effects of Mass Media
Early research often found little impact of media on political
attitudes and behavior for three reasons:
Narrow Scope of Effects
Vote Choice (Hard to Move) over Trust, Affection, Knowledge (Easier)
Focus on individuals over group movement
Theoretical limitations
Focus on persuasion, which was harder
Cognitive-consistency theories
Measurement issues
Self-Assessments
Moderators
Difficult to measure usage
Difficult to survey elites
4. Control of News Media
Authoritarian Control Systems
Media advances the interest of the government
Ideological: media advances ideological goals
Non-Ideological: media used to prevent interference
Democratic Control Systems
Expectation of journalists as watchdogs
Criticisms of “perversions” of accepted values
Libertarian versus Social Responsibility
Ex: Coverage of Venezuela Protests
5. Models of News Making
Mirror Model
News reflection of reality
Professional Model
News result of professionals striving for balance and interesting
news
Organizational Model
Organizational pressures influence news outcomes
Political Model
News reflects ideological biases of news people
Civic Journalism
Press can assist public dialogue, explain & advocate for policy
6. Ownership of Media: Public Ownership
Outright ownership is relatively
limited in the United States
Local governments own cable
systems or run channels on
private systems
Federal Government
American Forces Radio and
Television
Voice of America
7. Ownership of Media: Semi-Public
Ownership
Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
Mixture of public and private funding,
programming, and operation of radio
and television for educational and
public service programming
Corporation for Public Broadcasting
Political appointees
Handles general administration
Influences programming through
funding decisions
8. Ownership of Media: Private Ownership
Independents
Run a single media venture
Wire services
Media Chains
Individual or corporate ownerships of several media outlets
“Cross-Media” – own several types of media outlets
Conglomerates
Own both media and non-media businesses
9. Costs & Benefits of Consolidation
Benefits:
Large, well-financed companies
can provide more lavish & costly
to make programming
Costs:
Concerns about lack of diversity,
mitigated by cable, satellite, &
Internet.
Focus on “Infotainment”, merger
of entertainment and news
Possibility that political and
financial concerns of companies
influence news reporting. Source https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2014/07/fascinating-graphic-
shows-who-owns-all-the-major-brands-in-the-world/
10. “Outrage Industry” (Berry & Sobieraj)
Hyper-partisan media outlets
that specialize in generating
outrage
Particularly profitable for
several reasons:
Cheap to produce, dramatically
appealing
Highly loyal fanbase due to
personal style & community
Appealing to advertisers,
particularly of niche products
11. Example of outrage industry:
Trevor Noah interview of
Tomi Lahren of “The Blaze”.
Watch from 0:25 – 1:10
12. Sources of Media Influence
Prestige
Prestigious news outlets influence journalism norms
Pack Journalism
Market size
Media in bigger, denser markets have more influence
Competition
Mainstream television main source of news
Most cities still have one or two major papers
Competition in general has started to increase
13. Sources of Media Control
Federal Communications
Commission
Bipartisan commission that regulates
broadcasting
Anti-trust and monopoly
Licensing
Public service and local interest programs
Protection from unfair media coverage
In practice has had limited effect
Technology changes
Weakened independence
Minimal content control or enforcement
14. Sources of Media Control
Media Associations
Lobbyist and media organizations
National Association of Broadcasters
Lobby on behalf of media outlets
Encourage self-regulation
Ex: ESRB and Movie Ratings
Advertisers
Threat of withdrawing advertising
revenue
Citizen Lobby Groups
Legal Action
Monitoring and publicizing content
Pressuring advertisers
15. First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging
the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government
for a redress of grievances
16. Access: Controlled vs Uncontrolled
Media
Uncontrolled Media
Print Media nearly absolute freedom
Cable & Internet minimally regulated
Miami Herald Publishing Company v Tornillo
Press has right to print whatever they want
Controlled Media
Broadcasting more regulated due to semi-monopoly status
Certain regulations:
Right to Equal Time
Right to Fair Treatment (no longer in effect)
Right of Rebuttal
17. Access: Alternatives
Public Access:
Letters to the Editor and
Editorials
Paid Advertisements
Sensational Events
Lobbying
All the above, however, are
subjective to the decisions
of editors and how the
story are framed.
18. Information Sources: Government Records
Access:
Freedom of Information Act
Public Records
Limitations:
Private records
National security
Executive Privilege
In general it is difficult to get access to
government records. Leads to reliance on
leaks instead.
19. Information Sources: Private Industry
No right to private documents: voluntary access or leaks
FOIA only covers government-business relations, but often restricted
in access so competitors can’t use information.
Industry often uses threat of lawsuit to pressure media
20. Individual Rights
Privacy Protections
Media has right to publish publicly available
records
“Involuntary public figure”
Minimal protections in public settings
Most protections are norms or indirect
(harassment, trespassing)
Gag rules
Courts have traditionally defended privacy
in courtroom, but tradition is weakening.
Judges have right to “gag rule” to limit
media from covering parts of a trial, but
Supreme Court has moved towards
opening media access to trials
21. Individual Rights
Shield Laws
Journalists routinely decline to reveal their sources to protect them
Supreme Court has ruled no right to protect sources in face of subpoena.
Some states have laws to prevent journalists from forced testimony similar to doctors,
lawyers, and clergy.
Libel Laws
Provide redress when published information unjustly tarnishes reputation
Must prove:
Negligence or recklessness
Exposed plaintiff to hatred, ridicule, or contempt
If public figure, bar raised to “knowledge it was false or reckless disregard of whether it was false
or not” (NYT v Sullivan)
Public figure does not include an individual who did not seek out publicity except in most
extraordinary of circumstances
22. Other Restrictions
National security
Indecent and offensive content (broadcast)
Sex, violence, swearing
Pornography
Cigarettes
Hate speech is protected
Most restrictions on the content of media come from
professional and organizational norms, not legal protections.
