parts of speech continued

1. Types and Usage

2. • An adverb is a word that describes or
gives more information about a verb,
an adjective, another adverb, or even
the entire sentence.
• The word "adverb" comes for the Latin
ad- (in addition) and ve rbum (word).

3. • Where? Home. ("I went home.")
• When? Yesterday. ("We met yesterday.")
• How? Slowly. ("The turtle moves slowly.")
• How often? Sometimes. ("Sometimes it
stops responding.")
• How long? Temporarily. ("She is staying
with us temporarily.")
• How likely? Surely. ("Our team will surely
win!")
• To what degree? Very. ("She was very
pleased.")

4. • An adverb can describe a verb:
She runs quickly.
• An adverb can describe an adjective:
She is so beautiful.
• An adverb can describe anotheradverb:
She smokes very rarely.
• An adverb can describe an entire sentence:
Obviously, you don't have to come.

5. • In many cases (but not always!) adverbs have the
following form:
• Adjective + "-ly"
Examples:
Quick + ly = quickly
Strange + ly = strangely
Dead + ly = deadly
Sudden + ly = suddenly
Clever + ly = cleverly
Brave + ly = bravely
Real + ly = really

6. • When an adjective ends with "y" replace the "y" with
an "i":
Heavy + ly = heavi + ly = heavily
Happy + ly = happi + ly = happily
• When the adjective ends with an "e" drop the "e":
True + ly = tru + ly = truly
However, there are many adverbs that do not end in
"-ly":
Fast, very, hard, home, just, too, well, never,
sometimes, and so forth.

7. • Adverbs of degree
Very, highly, totally, perfectly, partially, almost.
• Adverbs of manner
Well, badly, nicely, slowly, loudly, quietly, happily,
sadly, secretly, weakly.
• Adverbs of place
Home, here, there, outside, inside, away, around,
anywhere, abroad, up, down, out.
• Adverbs of time
Now, soon, later, yesterday, tomorrow, early, before,
lately, recently.

8. • Adverbs of frequency
Always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually,
occasionally.
• Adverbs of duration
Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly.
• Adverbs of probability
Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely.

9. "Comparative" means "comparing something to
something else.“
Comparative adverbs show us which action or state is
better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth.
Examples:
more, less, better, worse, faster, slower, farther,
closer.
Example sentences:
Maggie works out more seriously than Donna.
She eats less than her friends.
You are betterthan this.
We couldn't go slowereven if we wanted to.
Let's get closer.

10. "Superlative" means "of the highest degree.“
Superlative adverbs show us which action or state
is the best, the strongest, and so forth.
Examples:
Best, most, least, worst, strongest, fastest,
slowest.
Example sentences:
He knows best.
It was the most boring experience.
He shouted the loudest so he won.
He ran the slowest so he lost.

11. Hardly means almost none, and hard means
heavily
Rama works hardly ✘
Rama works hard ✔
Rama hardly works ✔
Third sentence is correct as hardly indicates here,
Rama is a lazy person.

12. Fast is an adverb. Fastly has no meaning
He walks fastly. ✘
He walks fast ✔
Late means afterthe expected time. Lately means
recently.
He came lately ✘
He came late. ✔
Have you seen her lately? ✔

14. •Conjunctions are words that connect 2 sentences or parts
of sentences, acting as connectors.
•I was going to see a movie, but I’ve changed my mind.
•She couldn’t decide if she wanted the lemon tea or the
rosehip tea.
•Conjunctions connect thoughts, ideas, actions, nouns,
clauses, etc.

15. Subject – Noun being spoken about
Predicate – Content being spoken about the subject
Phrase – group of words that do not form a complete meaningful
sentence
Example: a nice red shirt, on the roof, with care, has been snoring,
to buy a car, her eyes on the clock
Clause – group of words having at least one subject and one
predicate
An independent clause expresses complete meaning unlike a
dependent clause
Example: I am teaching – Independent clause
While I am teaching – Dependent

16. •ACRON
YM
•F - FOR
•A - AND
•N - NOR
•B - BUT
•O - OR
•Y - YET
•S - SO
The coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join
two independent clauses, or two nouns, or two verbs, etc.
I will be late to the party, for I am working until seven.
Tom likes to read and write.
Sally does not like the mountains, nor does she like the ocean.
I wanted to ride my bike, but the tire was flat.
Fred wants peas or carrots for supper.
I love chocolate, yet I do not eat chocolate ice cream.
She was late to work, so her boss made her stay after five.

17. •Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction when it is
used to connect two independent clauses.
•Tom walked the dog, so he grabbed the mail.
OR
Tom walked the dog, and he grabbed the mail.
•Both parts of the sentence have a subject and verb (before
and after the coordinating conjunction).
•I want to go see a movie but my sister has my car.
•I want to go see a movie, but my sister has my car.
•Lisa loves cats yet she does not want one living in her
house.

18. •When using a coordinating conjunction to connect two
items, do not use a comma.
•
Example:
Tom walked the dog and grabbed the mail.
•
("Tom walked the dog" is an independent clause, but
"grabbed the mail" is not.)
•She likes apples, and bananas.
•She likes apples and bananas.
•My brother is young, but smart.
•My brother is young but smart.

19. •When using a coordinating conjunction with a list of items
(three or more in number), the comma before the
coordinating conjunction is optional.
•Example with comma:
She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn, and carrot.
•
Example without comma:
She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn and carrot.

20. •Subordinating conjunctions show a relationship between an
independent and a dependent clause; like cause-and-effect,
and contrast.

21. True relative pronouns are “that,” “who” and “which,” and they differ
from subordinating conjunctions
They act as the subject of a dependent clause whereas subordinating
conjunctions do not.
Subordinating conjunctions are followed by the subject of their clause.
Examples:
John is the guy who came over for dinner last week.
Here, we have two clauses. “John is the guy” is the main clause, and
“who came over for dinner last week” gives us more information about
John. The word “who” acts as the subject of the dependent clause.
We talked about music and movies while we ate.
“We talked about music and movies” is the main clause, and “while we
ate” gives us more information. However, in this example, both clauses
have the subject “we.” The word “while” does not act as the subject of
the dependent clause.

22. •Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work
together to join phrases or words that carry equal
importance within a sentence.
•When using correlative conjunctions, ensure verbs agree
•Example: Every night, either loud music or fighting
neighbors wake John from his sleep.
•When you use a correlative conjunction, you must be sure
that pronouns agree.
•Example: Neither Debra nor Sally expressed her
annoyance when the cat broke the antique lamp.
•When using correlative conjunctions, be sure to keep
parallel structure intact. Equal grammatical units need to be
incorporated into the entire sentence.
•Example: Not only did Mary grill burgers for Michael, but
she also fixed a steak for her dog, Vinny.

23. •either . . . or
• We can go to either Greece or Spain for our holiday.
• It’s my final offer – you can either take it or leave it.
•both . . . and
• Both rugby and football are popular in France.
• Both English and Welsh are spoken in Wales.
•not only . . . but also
• Not only is he a professional footballer, but he’s also a
successful businessman.
•not . . . but
• There are not two but three Baltic states: Lithuania,
Latvia and Estonia.

24. • neither . . . nor
• Neither Norway nor Switzerland is in the European
Union.
• Marriage is neither heaven nor hell, it is simply
purgatory. (Abraham Lincoln)
• whether . . . or
• Whether you love them or hate them, you have to admit
that the Rolling Stones are very popular.
• I’m totally confused – I don’t know whether I’m coming or
going.
• no sooner . . . than
• No sooner had I finished watering the garden than it
started raining.

25. •Here are some more pairs of correlative conjunctions:
•as/as - Bowling isn’t as fun as skeet shooting.
•such/that - Such was the nature of their relationship that
they never would have made it even if they’d wanted to.
•scarcely/when - I had scarcely walked in the door when I
got the call and had to run right back out again.
•as many/as - There are as many curtains as there are
windows.
•no sooner/than - I’d no sooner lie to you than strangle a
puppy.

26. Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs which join two
clauses
Conjunctive adverbs frequently (but not necessarily)
have a semi-colon before them.
As they’re conjunctions (i.e. words that join two
thoughts or ideas), it’s best not to use them at the
beginning of a sentence.
Please close the outer door; otherwise, the cold air
comes in.
First feed the horses; next, please feed the chickens.
Conjunctive adverbs can also put a little break in the
sentence, providing emphasis.
The new building will, furthermore, provide storage
facilities as well as meeting space.
The commas are used around the conjunctive adverb
for emphasis. If the interruption in the sentence should
be weaker, just leave out the commas.
The new building will furthermore provide storage
facilities as well as meeting space.
EXAMPLES
Also
Besides
Accordingly
Finally
Subsequently
Therefore
Thus
Meanwhile
Moreover
Nonetheless
Instead
However
Indeed
Hence
Consequently
Similarly
Still

27. •Martha went to the market and bought fresh vegetables.
•In this sentence, the conjunction and connects the two
things Martha did.
•Martha went to the market, and I went to the hardware
store.
•Here, and connects two sentences, preventing the
choppiness which would arise if we used too many short
sentences.
•Conjunctions can also make lists.
•I can’t decide between the blue shirt and the red shirt.

28. •I worked quickly yet am careful.
•When using a conjunction, make sure that the parts which
are being joined by the conjunction have a parallel structure
(i.e. that they use the same verb forms, etc.)
•Am care fulis not in the same form as q uickly; this creates
faulty parallelism. The verbs need to be in the same form.
•I worked quickly yet carefully.
•The two adverbs modify the verb wo rke d.
•I am quick yet careful.

30. “The plane flew above the cloud, behind the cloud,
around the cloud, below the cloud, beneath the cloud,
beside the cloud, beyond the cloud, into the cloud, near
the cloud, outside the cloud, overthe cloud, past the
cloud, through the cloud, toward the cloud, underthe
cloud, and finally dived underneath the cloud.”

31. • Tell us the relationship between 2 things
• Add information to a sentence
• Construct Prepositional phrases – Adjectival and
adverbial
• Denote space and time

32. • Non exhaustive
• Complex prepositions can theoretically be added to the
language any time
• Basically 2 types
- One word – at, on, in, by, with
- Complex – in front of, along with, out of

33. • Before a noun or a noun phrase or –ing form
In the class, At home, On the desk, On heating
• Immediately after a verb
I am in the class, My mom is at home, CA4 answer papers
are on my desk, Butter melts on heating

34. • Firstly, think about your intended meaning
Am I standing infront of the audience or am I walking
alongthe aisle?
One common mistake is “Am I standing beforethe
audience?”

35. ask describe get need take
atte nd discuss like raise te le pho ne
be lie ve e m phasiz e jo in re ce ive use
buy e njo y lo se say want
co nside r e xpe ct lo ve sug g e st watch
co ntact find m ake

36. appear die lie sneeze
arrive disappe ar live sno w
co m e fall rain wait
co ug h happe n rise wo rk
Suddenly Joss appeared in the doorway.
I lie in bed
The Sun rises in the East
I work at LPU
I live in Punjab

37. transitive intransitive
Ijust can’t eat ho t fo o d.
What tim e do yo u want to
eat?
He drives a van fo r a
de live ry firm .
Ile arnt to drivewhe n I
was twe nty.
My fathe r left scho o l
whe n he was fo urte e n.
We sho uld leaveno w.
She won a co m pe titio n
and g o t a fre e trip to
Co pe nhag e n.
Ho w was the m atch? Did
yo u win?

38. Preposition Indicates
At, in, on, from..to, until, by,
before, after, during, while
Time
Since, for Point/ Duration of Time
At, on, in Place
Below, above, under, over,
beneath, in front of, behind,
opposite to
Relative position of things
To, Across, along, down,
into, off, over, under, out of,
past, through
Direction of movement

40. Time Place
At Specific Relatively Specific
Me e t m e at 9 am Me e t m e at m y de sk
On Relatively Specific Relatively Specific
Me e t m e o n Mo nday My cabin is o n the first flo o r
In Nonspecific Specific
Me e t m e in the m o rning Me e t m e in m y cabin

41. Denotes – Time/ Place/ Activity/ Measurement
• Everyday the class commence at 9 am at block 34
• We will meet at noon at my desk
• I may not be here at Christmas
• Big Cinemas is at Viva Collage
• Mail me at example@gmail.com
• He always makes people laugh at his jokes
• He always drives at 70 kmph (at a speed of )
• I learnt Piano at ten ( at the age of)

42. Denotes – Time and Place (Surface)
• The week starts on Monday
• Next we will meet on28th
of this month
• My house is on Elm street
• The books are on the table
• Most of us have a lecture hour on Monday morning

43. Denotes – Time and Place
• I skip my breakfast in the morning
• I joined the course in August
• I reside in Punjab
• It starts snowing in the month of December

44. No at, on, inwith –
Every, last, next, this day/ week/ month/ year/ Monday
etc
No to, toward, towards with –
home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs,
upstairs

45. 1)I want to lose 5 kilogram (on, at, in) one month.
2)Could you get me this pants (on, at, in) a larger
size?
3)She seems to be interested (on, at, in)
Psychology.
4)I will come to pick you up (on, at, in) 2 pm
tomorrow.
5)This class will be held (on, at, in) Mondays.

46. Denotes – Time
• Since denotes from a point of time in the past until now
and usually comes after the present perfect tense or
present perfect continuous tense in a sentence
- It has been raining sinceyesterday
- The schools have been closed sinceyesterday
- I know him since1980
- We have been in this room sincemorning

47. Denotes – Time
• Fordenotes duration ortime period
- I am going home for10 days
- I will go home fora week in December
- I know him for10 years
- This session is for60 minutes

49. Relative
position

50. 1)In
2)On
3)Behind
4)Under
5)In front of
6)Next to
7)Between
8)Among
9)Over

53. • About – On the subject of something or somebody
You can make sentences like
I would like to talk about, think about, speak about, hear
about…
• By– proximity, who or what does something, how something
is done
Last night, I sat bymy table to prepare the content by
downloading images that were to be presented byme.
• With– Company, Utility, Inclusion
I went withmy friend to buy a sweatshirt witha hood.
I lost my key, I opened my lock witha wire.

55. • Foris used for denoting time duration
I want to do this for the betterment of the mankind.
• But is used similar to except
Everyone ate pizza but me.
• Until, Before, Afteretc.
Until your hiccups stop
Before I leave the hall
After this session

56. • We lie in bed but on the couch.
• We are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the
hospital.
• We watch a film at the theater but on television.
• Usage of beside/ besides
• Usage of between/ among