1. April 2009 Volume 44 – Number 1
Arkansas Association For
Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance

2. ArkAHPERD
Andy Mooneyhan
Box 240
State University, AR 72467
Non-Profit Organization
U.S. Postage
PAID
Permit No. 5
State University, AR 72467
GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS
Material for publication and editorial correspondence should be address to Andy
Mooneyhan, PO Box 240, State University, AR 72467 [amooneyh@astate.edu]. Deadline for
the submission is March 1. Guidelines for materials submitted are those of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association. For manuscripts, submit 3 copies. The
title should be included on a separate page with the author(s) name, position, address, phone
number and email address. The title of the manuscript, without the author(s) name, should
appear on the first page of the manuscript. If accepted, a final copy of the manuscript must
be submitted on disk, saved in Microsoft Word or Text format.
The Arkansas Journal is indexed in the Physical Education Index.
The Arkansas Journal is published annually in April with a subscription cost of $10.00. The
journal can be obtained by contacting Andy Mooneyhan at amooneyh@astate.edu.
The opinions of the contributors are their own and do not necessarily reflect those of
ArkAHPERD or the journal editors. ArkAHPERD does not discriminate in this or any of
its programs on the basis of race, religion, sex, national origin, or disabling condition.
Editorial Board
Brian Church Andy Mooneyhan Bennie Prince Jim Stillwell

3. April 2009 – Arkansas Journal – Volume 44 – Number 1
CONTENTS
News and Information
Award Qualifications . . . . . . . 3
Message from the President. . . . . . . 4
ArkAHPERD Board of Directors. . . . . . 5
Calendar . . . . . . . . . 12
2008 ArkAHPERD State Convention Highlights. . . . 15
2008 ArkAHPERD Award Winners. . . . . . 17
2008 ArkAHPERD Scholarship Winners . . . . 18
2008 ArkAHPERD SuperStars Competition . . . . 18
Articles
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Legal Duties of Coaches
David LaVetter. . . . . . . . 6
Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors of African American Adolescents
Brian C. Gordon, Michael A. Perko, Lori W. Turner
and Deidre Leaver-Dunn . . . . . . 13
Balance Measures Using the Biodex Balance System in Physically Active
Non-Active Women
Tim Leszczak & Ro DiBrezzo. . . . . . 23
On the Cover: A special thanks to our retiring Executive Director,
Jim Stillwell, who has served as a mentor, friend and true professional for
so many ArkAHPERD members. You will truly be missed!!!

4. AWARD QUALIFICATIONS
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HONOR
Candidate must meet the following qualifications:
A. Be at least 30 years of age and have earned a
Master’s degree or its equivalent.
B. Have served the profession for at least five years
prior to the nomination.
C. Be a current member of ArkAHPERD. Former
members who have retired from professional work
may be exempt.
D. Be of high moral character and personal integrity
who by their leadership and industry have made
outstanding and noteworthy contributions to the
advancement of our profession in the state of
Arkansas.
To indicate leadership or meritorious contributions,
the nominator shall present evidence of the nominee’s
successful experiences in any two of the following
categories of service:
1. Service to the association.
2. Advancement of the profession through
leadership of outstanding programs.
3. Advancement of the profession through
presentation, writings, or research.
Any ArkAHPERD member may submit nominations
by sending six (6) copies of the candidate’s qualifications
to Janet Forbess, jforbess@uark.edu.
HIGHER EDUCATOR OF THE YEAR
Candidate must meet the following qualifications:
A. Have served the profession for at least three
years prior to the nomination.
B. Be a member of ArkAHPERD
C. Be of high moral character and personal
integrity who by their leadership and industry
have made outstanding and noteworthy
contributions to the advancement of teaching ,
research, or service in the state of Arkansas.
D. Be employed by an institution of higher
education in the state of Arkansas.
Any ArkAHPERD member may submit nominations
by sending a copy of the candidate’s qualifications to
Larry Thye, thyel@hsu.edu
TEACHER OF THE YEAR
Teacher awards are presented in the areas of elementary
physical education, middle school physical education,
secondary physical education, dance, and health.
Candidate must meet the following qualifications:
A. Have served the profession for at least three
years prior to the nomination.
B. Be a member of AAHPERD & ArkAHPERD.
C. Be of high moral character and personal integrity
who by their leadership and industry have made
outstanding and noteworthy contributions to the
advancement of teaching in the state of Arkansas.
D. Be employed by a public school system in the
state of Arkansas.
E. Have a full time teaching contract, and have a
minimum of 60% of their total teaching
responsibility in the nominated area.
F. Have a minimum of five years teaching
experience in the nominated area.
G. Conduct a quality program.
They must submit three letters of
recommendation and agree to make complete
NASPE application if selected.
Any ArkAHPERD member may submit nominations by
contacting Angie Smith-Nix, ansmith@uark.edu.
STUDENT
Scholarships
ArkAHPERD awards four scholarships annually for
students majoring in HPERD. They include the Newman
McGee, Past President’s, Jeff Farris Jr., and John Hosinski
scholarships. Students must possess a minimum 2.5 GPA.
[See your academic advisor for special details.]
Research Award
Research awards of $100, $50, and $25 are awarded to
undergraduate and graduate students who are members of
ArkAHPERD. Students must submit an abstract and a
complete paper Bennie Prince, bfprince@ualr.edu by
October 1, 2005. Papers selected for the research awards
must be presented by the student in an oral or poster
format at the November convention.
ArkAHPERD Web Site: http://www.arkahperd.org/

5. Message from the President
I just returned from the National AAHPERD
Convention in Fort Worth, TX. It was so inspiring to
see. so many ArkAHPERD members there among.
the throngs filling the Fort Worth Convention Center.
Especially gratifying was the sight of so many “future.
professionals” from our state institutions of higher.
learning parading down the halls in various t-shirts
proclaiming their institutional affiliation. The repre-sentation
of the “Natural State” in “Cowtown” was outstanding and I was proud
4
to be a small part of that population.
I was also proud to have an opportunity to represent ArkAHPERD at both
the Southern District Representative Assembly with Executive Director Jim
Stillwell and President-Elect Lynn Leggett and National Delegate Assembly with
Jim Stillwell. To be able to represent you, the membership, at these events was a
humbling responsibility and a truly singular experience.
I know that our 2008 convention in Little Rock will be filled with tales,
myths, stories and even a few outright lies about the tenure of our retiring
Executive Director Dr. Jim Stillwell; as the members reflect back along his
decades of service to this association. But before all the clamor begins, I’d like to
take this opportunity to personally thank Jim for his MANY years of selfless and
dedicated service to ArkAHPERD and its membership. I know we, as an
organization, will surely miss his steady hand guiding our maturation and
development. But I’m quite sure he will continue to maintain his traditional
vibrant presence amidst our annual fall gatherings.
Always remember, if there is ANYTHING I can do as your ArkAHPERD
President, let me know the action required and I will do all I can to positively
address your situation! This is YOUR Association and I stand in this office to
serve YOU, the members!
I’m looking forward to seeing ALL of you in Little Rock on November 6-7
for the 2008 ArkAHPERD Convention. Have a GREAT Summer!
Sincerely,
Lynn Stanley
Lynn Stanley
ArkAHPERD President

6. ArkAHPERD Board of Directors
Leggett, Lynn President leggettl@hsu.edu
Forbess, Janet Program Coordinator jforbess@uark.edu
Mooneyhan, Andy Executive Director amooneyh@astate.edu
Gist, Tracie JRFH Coordinator tracy.gist@pottsville.k12.ar.us
Robinson, Lindsay HRH Coordinator lrobinson@dewitt.k12.ar.us
Mooneyhan, Andy Journal/Newsletter Editor amooneyh@astate.edu
Mooneyhan, Allen WEB Master amooneyhan@asun.edu
Division Vice Presidents / VP-elects
Wilf, Martha Athletics & Sports
Ralph, Christy Health cralph@bentonville.k12.ar.us
Keese, Pam Recreation pkeese@harding.edu
Hilson, Valarie General vhilson@astate.edu
Prince, Bennie General-elect bfprince@ualr.edu
Stilwell, Laura Dance danz4u@sbcglobal.net
Mathis, Mitch Physical Education mmathis@astate.edu
Straub, Jennifer Physical Education-elect jstraub@sdale.org
Section Chairs / Chair-elects
Turley, Ken Exercise Science krturley@harding.edu
Oliver, Gretchen Athletic Training goliver@uark.edu
Perkey, Dennis Athletic Training-elect dperkey@astate.edu
Robinson, Lindsay Elementary Phys Ed lrobinson@dewitt.k12.ar.us
Mitchell, Nathan Elementary Phys Ed-elect nmitchell@sdale.org
Williams, Kenna Future Professional [UAM] krw2221@uamont.edu
Kelley, Kate Future Professional [UAM] mkk0422@uamont.edu
Wempe, Patrick Higher Education wempep@hsu.edu
Koh, Yun Higher Education-elect kohy@hsu.edu
Peterson, Don Research petersd@hsu.edu
Bryant, Lance Research-elect lgbryant@astate.edu
Smith-Nix, Angie Secondary Phys Ed ansmith@uark.edu
Moore, Jessica Secondary Phys Ed-elect jmoore@harding.edu
Standing Committee Chairs
Arrington, Alfred Scholarships arringtona@uapb.edu
Wempe, Patrick Higher Educator of the Year wempep@hsu.edu
Forbess, Janet Honor Award jforbess@uark.edu
Smith-Nix, Angela Necrology ansmith@uark.edu
Smith-Nix, Angela Teacher Awards ansmith@uark.edu
ArkAHPERD 2009 State Convention will be November 5-6
at the Best Western Inn of the Ozarks
207 W Van Buren
Eureka Springs
Phone: 479-853-9768
5

7. A Peer Reviewed Article
Legal Duties of Coaches
David LaVetter
6
Introduction
Approximately 7.5 million athletes participate in
interscholastic athletics in the U.S. each year (National
Federation of High School Association {NFHS},
2008). Approximately 850,000 men and women coach
these students (NFHS, 2008). National Association for
Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) has partnered
with various national associations since the 1960’s in
spearheading the national movement for high school
coaching certification.
In 1991, the NFHS, which governs interscholastic
athletics for state high school athletics, partnered with
American Sport Education Program to offer school
versions of coaching principles courses. These two org-anizations
worked closely with state activity associations
to implement these courses as required education, or at
least, highly recommend for all school coaches. Within
the coaching curriculum, legal duties of coaches were
established. These duties have been instructed in the
NFHS/ASEP courses since 1990 (ASEP, 2008).
ASEP’s partnership with NFHS ended in 2005. ASEP
worked directly with more than 40 state high school
associations in delivering the ASEP Professional
Coaches Education Program to more than 50,000
coaches across the U.S. (ASEP, 2008). The legal duties
of coaches outlined in their program’s content have
continued to be followed by courts as the legal
standards that should be practiced by recreational and
school sport coaches (Martens, 2004).
More recently, the NFHS Coaching Education
Program (2005), a newly formatted coaching education
and certification program, has outlined legal duties of
coaches. A very important source of additional exp-ectations
for a coach is found in the accepted state and
national standards for coaching published by profess-sional
organizations. The most recent and comprehend-sive
set of standards, including the legal duties,
published in 1995 by the National Association for Sport
and Physical Education (NASPE, 1995). These
standards are being accepted by organizations
throughout the country and are being used to determine
the content of coaching education programs. As these
standards become more widely accepted, they are likely
to become the “standard of care” for coaches in the
eyes of the legal system. It may be necessary for
coaches to show that they have the training and
expertise in each of the various areas detailed in this set
of standards (NFHS, 2007, p.1).
Additionally NASPE administers the National Council
for Accreditation of Coaching Education (NCACE)
(NASPE, 2008). NCACE reviews coaching education
and certification programs that seek accreditation based
on compliance with the National Standards for Athletic
Coaches (NCACE, 2006).
School coaches have a myriad of responsibilities
pertaining to coaching athletics teams. However, beyond
the game strategies, skill instruction, budget, and over-involved
parents lies an often overlooked area of res-ponsibility:
Legal duties of coaching. Part of practicing
good risk management strategies in coaching is to have
an understanding of the legal expectations as
professionals in the field. A seasoned coach may
understand the complexity of managing a sports team,
but when a list of legal duties is added and adherence
expected, it may be overwhelming. The appointment of
unprepared individuals to coaching positions in our
schools could lead to serious health and safety-related
problems for the athletes and as well as potential legal
pitfalls for sport organizations (Conn & Razor, 1989).
Therefore, it is vital that all coaches understand and
consistently practice the legal expectations according to
their job scope.
According to Tim Flannery, NFHS assistant director
and director of the Coach Education Program, "At this
point, there are no national requirements to certify
coaches…however, state associations are helping estab-lish
and enforce those requirements at a local level"
(NFHS, 2007, p. 1). Flannery mentioned about 40 state
associations have committed to the new program which
started 2007-08. A new DVD entitled "Minimizing Risk:
A Shared Responsibility" will be used by athletic
directors and coaches to be shown during preseason
meetings. The DVD warns athletes and their parents
about the inherent risk of injury in sports (NFHS, 2007).
Three types of torts or wrongs have been established by
the courts: 1) intentional, or willful or wanton; 2) strict
liability; and 3) negligence. This article focuses on
negligence-related legal claims. Negligence is defined as
“…the failure to act as a reasonably prudent
professional would act under similar circumstances.”
Thus, negligence occurs when a coach fails to act as a
reasonably prudent coach would act in a similar situation
(Nyggard & Boone, 1985.)
This article addresses the legal responsibilities as
outlined by NFHS and ASEP. American Sport
Education Program (ASEP) established nine legal duties

8. 7
(ASEP, 1989) pertaining to coaching youth sports
(schools or otherwise). These legal responsibilities
primarily arose from thousands of court cases. The
duties vary state by state and may also change as
litigation continues.
Negligence
Three types of torts or wrongs have been established
by the courts: 1) intentional, or willful or wanton; 2)
strict liability; and 3) negligence. This article focuses on
negligence-related legal claims. Negligence is defined as
“…the failure to act as a reasonably prudent
professional would act under similar circumstances.”
Thus, negligence occurs when a coach fails to act as a
reasonably prudent coach would act in a similar situation
(Nyggard & Boone, 1985.)
The courts have established four criteria to determine
if negligence exists:
Was a duty owed? The legal concept of duty is
based on a “special relationship” between the
school (i.e. coach) and participant; implying
schools have a duty to exercise reasonable care for
the protection of their participants (Van der
Smissen, 1990). Courts have applied this “special
relationship” standard during school-sponsored
activities such as athletics.
Was there a breach in the duty? If the defendant,
or coach, has failed to meet the standard of care
required, they have breached their duty.
Was the breach of duty cause for injury or
damage? If an act or failure to act directly
produces the incident, and the incident would not
have occurred otherwise, then proximate causation
(or legal cause) exists. There must be a causal
connection for negligence to occur.
Was there damage? Actual loss, damage or injury
must occur to continue a negligence claim. The
threat of future damage is insufficient (Nygaard &
Boone, 1985).
All of these elements must be answered in the
affirmative to have a valid negligence claim. Foresee-ability
is a major factor in determining if you did or did
not meet your professional standard of care. In determ-ining
negligence, an essential component is failing to
anticipate and act on unreasonable risks of injuries that a
reasonably prudent person would have anticipated and
acted upon (foreseeability) (Neish, 1996). If the coach
should have known of foreseeable risks, they may be
named in the lawsuit as well as the school. Under
doctrine of respondent superior, an employer may be liable
for the wrongful acts of the employee if the employee
was acting in his/her job scope and responsibilities.
Legal Duties
The following are the established legal standards of
coaching adopted by NFHS and ASEP. Court cases are
added to help illustrate the expected legal standard.
1. Provide warnings to parents and athletes of risks
inherent to specific sport participation
During the initial team meeting of each year, coaches
should provide warnings of the inherent risks associated
with the specific sport. Pre-season team meetings should
be attended by the athletic director, head trainer, team
doctor, assistant coaches, parents or guardians and
players. Some schools may require these meetings be
videotaped for legal documentation.
In one of the earliest court cases involving coaching
duties, Vendrell v. School District No. 26C (1962), the
courts outlined particular legal responsibilities of inter-scholastic
athletic coaches. The court found an injured
football player had assumed the risks inherent to the
sport. The court also found the coach had adequately
instructed the players to the expected coaching
standards. This case made a significant impact on future
coaching standards in our schools.
Both participants and their parents or guardians
should be required to sign 1) agreement to participate, 2)
acknowledgement of inherent risks of the sport, and 3)
release of liability forms with the school at the first team
meeting, and certainly prior to any activity. Exculpatory
agreements provide the school (and coaches) defenses in
negligence-related claims against the school. Assum-ption
of risk is the defense most prevalently discussed in
contexts of physical activity and sport. Primary assum-ption
of risk indicates the participants (and parents)
understand and voluntarily agree to accept the inherent
risks associated with the specific sport (e.g. frequent
contact to the head during football drills/activities)
(Sharp, Moorman, & Claussen, 2007).
In collaboration with the National Interscholastic
Athletic Administrators Association (NIAAA), the
NFHS created a two-DVD series on risk management
focusing on the duty of athletics administrators and
coaches to warn of risks inherent to sport participation.
Proper warnings of sport participation to parents and
participants are essential to minimize liability risk for
coaches and school administrators.
In Beckett v. Clinton Prairie School Corp. (1987), an 18-
year old high school baseball player was injured during
practice when he collided head-on with another player
during a fly ball drill. According to the court, the
appropriate standard is "whether a defendant (school)
exercised his duty with the level of care of an ordinary
prudent person under the same or similar
circumstances" (p. 13). Further, the court noted that the
reasonable duty of care and supervision varies depend-ing
upon the age of the participants. Accordingly, the
court found that reasonable conduct will vary depending
upon the presumed awareness of participants to specific
risks of injury.
In this case, the court found the injured player had
actual knowledge and understanding of the specific risk:
colliding with another player in pursuit of a fly ball.
Specifically, the court found that the coach had properly
warned his players of the risk of collision if there was no
communication between players during the fly ball drill.
As a result, given plaintiff's appreciation of the danger,
the court found that the student had assumed the risk of
injury (Beckett, 1987). During the course of proper
instruction, a judicious coach may additionally provide
adequate warnings of certain physical risks inherent in
team strategy.

9. 8
2. Properly plan activity
Courts have repeatedly ruled that coaches have a duty
to properly plan each activity for those athletes under
their supervision. Develop a season plan illustrating in-dividual
skill and team strategy progressions. Begin each
season with testing to determine their physical capacities
and skill level for each sport. Some may make the
mistake of conditioning players, especially in extreme
temperature, beyond their physical capacity during the
first week of practice. Heat exhaustion risks are greatly
increased if players are not physically prepared to endure
such practices. Ease into the season with a progression
level appropriate for the sport and ages of participants.
It is also advised not to deviate from those plans.
Properly document all practice plans showing skill and
physical capacity progression as well as any testing
measures taken (Martens, 2004; Borkowski, 2008).
3. Provide a safe playing environment
The following case illustrates the importance of
providing a safe playing field. A 17-year-old high school
football player in North Carolina was rendered
quadriplegic after he was tackled by his teammates at a
practice. The player’s neck was broken when he was
tackled into an unguarded steel post just over 11-feet
from sideline of the practice field. It is reported that the
lawsuit filed by his parents against the school district
was settled for $12.5 million (Paralyzed, 2008).
Administrators and coaches should conduct periodic
risk assessments of their facilities to make the areas safer
for their participants.
A coach has the duty to notify the appropriate auth-ority
when he/she encounters a playing environment
that does not conform to the standards set by the
governing body of the particular sport. Coaches should
document the playing area risk not only to act
responsibly but to minimize their liability. Weather can
also change the physical environment of the surface or
air. Although such changes are less likely in indoor
facilities, the area can be at risk instantly if there is loss
of lighting, heat, or moisture control. Again, document
any hazardous conditions and report them to the school
facilities manager and athletic director as soon as
identified. Coaches should develop a facilities or playing
surface inspection checklist in their areas of
responsibility and check it regularly.
A facility manager, or coach in most circumstances,
must take reasonable care to keep premises in a safe
condition. That obligation includes duties to 1) frequen-tly
inspect for risks or hazards; 2) maintain the premises
and correct inadequacies; 3) warn participants about the
hazards that are not readily apparent; 4) warn
participants of the risks of the sport, and 5) keep
participants safe during their use of the premises
through reasonable supervision and security (Maloy,
2001, p. 106).
4. Provide safe and appropriate equipment
The coach has not only a duty to provide adequate and
proper equipment to the participants, but to explain its
correct use. Similarly, as with facilities, a coach must
regularly inspect equipment. Make certain the equip-ment
to be purchased meets the standards of the
national governing body for the sport. The failure to
issue protective equipment was an issue in Leahy v. School
Board of Hernando County (1984). Leahy, a high school
football player, was not issued a helmet for practice
because his head could not be properly fitted. He was,
however, permitted to participate. During a "non-aggressive"
agility drill, he bumped heads with a
helmeted opponent, shattering his teeth. The court ruled
for the plaintiff. Apparently, due to the lack of available
equipment, the plaintiff was not issued a helmet. No
special precautionary instructions were given to players
who had no helmets or mouth guards relative to those
players who had such equipment regarding limitations
on their participation in practice. Although this was
referred to by the coaches as a "no contact drill," by the
very nature of it, some physical contact between the
players was required. After the drill started, the coaches
let it continue as they watched from the sidelines.
Under the circumstances of the Leahy case, the court
found the injury to Leahy was "a foreseeable con-sequence":
(1) of the failure to provide plaintiff with a
helmet and mouth guard; (2) of the failure to give
cautionary instructions regarding contact (especially
regarding the fact that some players had helmets while
others did not) and (3) of the failure to limit the
progressive intensity of the drill under the circumstances
(Leahy, 1984, p. 8). The evidence that plaintiff was
permitted to participate without a helmet was sufficient
basis upon which a jury could conclude that the school
(through its employees) failed to exercise reasonable
care under the circumstances for the protection of
plaintiff.
One may argue that contact is inherent in the sport of
football, yet the court found that plaintiff's assumption
of risk as a participant in a contact sport was limited to
the risk of injury "inherent in ordinary play" and did not
include "the risk of participating in a training drill which
was improperly supervised and for which he had
improper and insufficient equipment" (Leahy, p. 16).
Additionally, there are dangers of handed down
equipment (i.e. varsity equipment given to junior varsity
teams). Circle System, Inc. of Easton, PA, a re-conditioner
of football equipment, allegedly failed to
perform safety tests on used football helmets before
sending them back on the field. The allegation is part of
a U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission report
issued after its investigation of the used helmets.
Approximately 200,000 football helmets for players as
young as eight years old to college-age used helmets that
failed to be tested properly (Refurbished, 2008). Even if
a player brings their own equipment, the coach has the
responsibility to inspect and ensure that it complies with
safety standards (Martens, 2004).
5. Provide proper instruction
Coaches have a legal duty to properly provide instruct-ion
to athletes by employing the most current know-ledge
of proper skills and methods of instruction. By
teaching technical and tactical skills correctly, athletes’
risk of injury is decreased (Borkowski, 1985). As a head
coach, your proper instructional duty cannot be
delegated. If assistant coaches are assigned to teach

10. 9
technical skills, you must supervise them to ensure it is
taught correctly. The duty to instruct is the most basic
of all responsibilities and duties placed upon physical
educators. It is what their trained to do. As in any move-ment
activity, injuries are inherent, and it is the duty of a
physical educator to minimize injuries (Adams, 1993).
A lawsuit in Seattle addressed issues of warning
players of the inherent risk associated with football as
well as the importance of providing proper instruction.
Thompson, a 15-year-old running back, caught a pass
on the sideline and attempted to lower his head and run
through an approaching tackler. The tragic consequence
was a severed spinal cord and quadriplegia. In the court
case, it was shown that the coach had informed his
players to keep their head up when they are running.
However, the coach did not properly demonstrate how
to meet a tackler and did not warn them of the dangers
of making initial contact with the head. The jury ruled
that the coach was negligent because he had not pro-perly
instructed and warned the player. Consequently,
the court awarded the plaintiff $6.4 million dollars,
which was later reduced to $4 million (Adams, 1993).
It is essential coaches keep well-informed of current
instructional standards for their sport and practice them.
Also, coaches should possess the ability to instruct
clearly, completely and consistently. Athletes need
adequate and consistent feedback from coaches.
6. Proper matching of athletes in practices and
games by size, experience and ability
Another legal duty is to match and equate opponents
in a common-sense manner (Nygaard, 1985). Most of
the time we think of this as matching by size; not pairing
a 100-lb. player and a 180-lb. player for a tackling drill.
What coaches must also consider are experience levels.
The freshman 119-lb. wrestler is generally not an
acceptable practice opponent for the senior 119-lb. state
champion. Another example would be inviting a former
collegiate wrestler from your school to practice with the
younger, high school-age wrestler. The skill and ability
level is likewise as important as the physical sizes of
participants.
In Toller v. Plainfield School District 202 et al. (1991), the
plaintiff's (Toller) son was injured while wrestling a
heavier opponent in a sixth grade physical education
class. At the time of the injury, Toller’s son weighed 83
pounds and was matched with a boy who was about the
same height, but was heavier weighing about 100
pounds. The trial court granted summary judgment in
favor of defendant. In the opinion of the trial court, the
alleged weight mismatch, while perhaps negligent, did
not constitute willful or wanton misconduct (as
discussed previously) required by statute to impose
liability on school activities.
In this particular case, the instructor "was aware that
weight classifications existed for extracurricular junior
high school wrestling and that the purposes of the
classifications were safety and fair competition" (Toller,
1991, p. 4). Accordingly, the instructor had divided the
class by estimating size, height, weight, body structure,
and ability. In providing a wrestling partner for the
plaintiff's son, the instructor recognized that the other
boy might have been a little stockier and stronger than
plaintiff's son. The instructor explained, however, that
he placed them in the same group because if he had
placed the other boy in a different group, he would have
been with boys much larger.
Blaylock instructed the students on the rules of
wrestling, incorporated the objectives of the curriculum
in his lesson guide, demonstrated various wrestling
maneuvers, and warned the students not to engage in
illegal moves such as the body slam. He then matched
students according to an estimation of their height,
weight, size, body structure, and ability. During the
matches, he closely supervised the competition and was
refereeing it only 10 feet away. Following the accident,
Blaylock called for help and applied ice to the injury.
It would, therefore, appear that this particular
instructor had satisfied the applicable legal duties owed
under the circumstances, i.e., adequate instruction; a
reasonable selection or matching participants; non-negligent
supervision of the particular activity; and
provided proper emergency assistance.
From Weiss v. Collinsville Community School District No.
10 (1983), the courts imposed liability upon the school
district for failure to supervise. A plaintiff must allege
and establish that when the educators acted, or failed to
act, it was with knowledge that such conduct posed a
high probability of serious physical harm to those under
his/her supervision.
Male practice squads competing against female teams
may become an increasingly more common practice.
These situations may become possible areas of
mismatching, as well as gender equity concerns, that
may lead to an increase in risk of injury or liability to
schools. Currently, this practice is a growing concern
among coaches and administrators in collegiate athletics.
Males are allowed to practice against female players in
college athletics (primarily in women’s basketball), yet
Title IX concern is the key issue at this point, not
physical risks. This practice has not yet swept across
high schools, yet could be an area of discussion in the
future as pressures to increase competitiveness continue
to grow. While a coach cannot match players for games,
he/she can attempt to ensure proper matching during
practice drills.
7. Provide adequate supervision of athletes
Approximately, 80% of negligence-related sports cases
within schools involve alleged improper or lack of
supervision. The failure to supervise is also the most
cited sports-related lawsuit claim. Supervision is a broad
term denoting responsibility for the area and activities
within the area (Kaiser, 1986). Coaches are expected to
exercise reasonable care to prevent unreasonable risk of
harm on the facility premises.
Supervision is categorized in two areas 1) general and
2) specific (Gaskin, 2001). General supervision is
expected when the activity does not require constant,
unremitting scrutiny of an activity. This mode of
supervision is used when observing activities on the
playground, in the gymnasium, weight room, or
swimming pool when the supervisor is not expected to
have every individual under supervision simultaneously.

11. 10
Specific supervision is expected when the activity
requires a constant and continuous observance for
individuals or small groups. It involves high-risk
activities or using areas that have the potential for
serious injury. For example, individuals who are learning
a skill or who are not able to perform a skill need
specific, direct supervision.
Additionally, there may be activities that transition
between general and specific depending on the
individual’s ability to perform the activity, use the
equipment and facility properly, and interact with
others. Ages of participants, skill level, years of exper-ience
in the sport, and mental faculties are additional
factors that may require specific supervision expect-ations.
Typically, the younger the age, less skilled and
less mature individuals, the more supervision is required
(Gaskin, 2001).
In the case of Herring v. Bossier Parish School District, a
15-year-old high school baseball player died after he was
struck in the head by a ball during batting practice.
According to the court, the coaches had a legal duty to
protect players "from foreseeable harm from the cond-uct
of things or persons under that coach's or teacher's
supervision" (Herring, 1994, p. 2). On the other hand,
the court noted that a coach is "not held to impossible
standard of exercising constant supervision over each
student involved in a group activity" (Herring, p. 2).
In this particular circumstance, the court found that
the coach had clearly stated the procedures and routines
for conducting an orderly batting practice. These
routines were designed to allow him reasonable
supervision and to provide for the reasonable safety of
his players. Further, the court found that the coach's
players knew these rules and procedures. In addition,
expert testimony indicated that these rules and
procedures met "the standard customarily used by
coaches of high school baseball players" (Herring, p. 4).
Despite such knowledge of the appropriate safety rules
and procedures, the court found plaintiff had not
heeded the coach's warning that the batter was "hitting."
The court, therefore, affirmed the judgment for the
coach (Herring v. Bossier Parish School District, 1994).
Additionally, football coaches of Long Island, NY
high school were found to have failed in their duty to
supervise athletes during a pre-season training camp
where hazing incidences led to injuries of players. The
coaches and school board were found to be negligent in
their duty to supervise after players admitted to sad-istically
hazing some of their teammates. The entire
football season was cancelled and several were charged
with assault and battery (Dangerous minds, 2004).
The plaintiff must show that failure to supervise was
the proximate cause (condition of negligence) of the
injury. No school liability exists if the injury would have
occurred even if appropriate supervision was present,
therefore, plaintiffs must establish that the injury was
reasonably foreseeable (Gaskin, 2001). Coaches should
consistency supervise to avoid negligent supervision that
could lead to the injury and increase school liability.
The court’s issue regarding supervision is not the
number of supervisors (or coaches) that were present
at the time of the injury, but whether the supervision
was reasonable with related to age, maturity, and exper-ience
of participants (Glankler v. Rapides Parish School
Board, 1993).
8. Evaluate injuries (if trained)
Coaches are often forced to deal with an injured player
without qualified medical personnel being immediately
available. Coaches who attempt to diagnose beyond
their scope of experience are putting themselves and
school at risk. Coaches have a duty to speedily attend an
injury occurring in which he/she is responsible to
supervise, yet coaches should not treat or diagnose
injuries if not properly certified as a trainer or doctor
(Neish, 1996). If necessary, the coach should not allow
continued participation until the player or staff, has been
properly evaluated by qualified personnel. Van der
Smissen (1990) asserted all sport programs need
personnel who are trained and qualified to administer
emergency care. Additionally, she stated the duty to
evaluate and provide emergency care exists regardless of
the training of personnel, accordingly, prudent school
administrators will insure their personnel are adequately
trained for emergency care. Despite the nationwide
efforts of NFHS, ASEP, NASP, NASBE continued
education of school sport coaches, in 2000 only 40% of
the states required coaches to be certified in first-aid and
CPR, and 34% required their coaches to complete a
coaches’ training course (Burgeson et al., 2001).
In response to states’ failure of requiring or
recommending CPR and first-aid certification for all
coaches, the NFHS recommended that all coaches
(experienced and non-experienced) possess a current
CPR and first-aid certification (NASBE, 2003). Addi-tionally,
NFHS recommended that even certified
teachers serving as head coaches maintain their
professional development by completing at least one
coaching education course per year as long as they
remain a coach (NASBE, 2003)
9. Provide appropriate emergency care
Typically, schools have a statutory duty that require
appropriate emergency care be provided to the injured
participant. Kaiser (1986) indicated administrators have
two responsibilities when providing for emergency care
to students: 1) They must be sure all personnel who
coach or teach are competent in the administering of
emergency first aid and CPR procedures, and 2) they
must be know of and adhere to emergency procedures
for timely medical assistance. Two areas are cited in the
emergency first-aid area: The appropriateness of the care
and the timely implementation of care (Kaiser, 1986).
In Jarreau v. Orleans Parish School Board (1992), the court
concluded a school was liable for a high school coach’s
and team trainer’s negligence in failing to immediately
refer an injured player for medical treatment. The player
fractured his wrist during a game and the coach
continued to play him despite sustained swelling and
pain. The court noted that coaches, if not properly
trained, are not expected to diagnose injuries but seek
proper medical treatment immediately.
Coaches are often forced to deal with an injured player
without qualified medical personnel being immediately

12. 11
available. Coaches who attempt to diagnose beyond
their scope of experience are putting themselves and the
school at risk (Maloy, 2001).
10. Provide safe transportation
Even though NFHS and ASEP have established the
above broad legal coaching duties, the literature
describing the duty to safely transport sport participants
is replete. When a school provides transportation, it
owes a duty of care pertaining to safe transportation
(Pittman, 1994). How does this duty pertain to coaches?
What are the duties of coaches while students waiting to
board or while on board the bus prior to departure for
an athletic event? The duty to provide safe trans-portation
begins at the original departure point and
continues until they return to the original departure
point (Pittman, 1994).
In Castro v. Los Angeles Board of Education (1976), where
a “school-sponsored activity” (one that requires attend-ance
from the students) is involved, the school district is
responsible for the safety of the student during the
entire trip.
In a case involving a student being attacked and raped
while waiting for the school bus on school property, the
courts found the coach (and school board) had a duty to
supervise and failed to fulfill this duty (O’Campo v. School
Board of Dade County, 1991). Recently, a hazing case has
emerged concerning high school athletes found to have
physically and sexually assaulted some younger team-mates
while traveling on a school bus. Two players were
accused of hazing at least two younger players on the
team bus. The players were charged with aggravated
sexual abuse and endangering the welfare of a child. In
addition from being suspended from their coaching
positions, the two coaches involved were also charged
with the same charges (Wilson, 2008).
In some situations, coaches are required to drive the
participants to the event and on the return trip home. In
most cases, the coaches are very fatigued and also may
not be able to adequately supervise the players when
transporting them. It is recommended that coaches do
not drive on team trips in order to better supervise and
thus, allow other qualified, more rested drivers to safely
transport the team. Coaches must be reasonable prudent
professionals at all times when transporting teams.
Safety of the athletes should always be our first priority.
The legal responsibility to provide safe transportation
most often rests with the school, however, coaches can
also do their part in helping ensure safe transportation
and supervision are provided to those whom he/she is
responsible (LaVetter, 2005).
In sum, if any question may arise concerning a
possible legal duty of coach, it is best to remember the
court’s discussion of negligence: How would a reason-ably
prudent coach act under similar circumstances?
Often, the situation requires the coach to consult with
the school’s administrators or legal counsel concerning
their duties, and yet other situations may necessitate the
coach respond immediately. In order to assist the coach
with decisions concerning their teams, the overall safety
and well being of each student can be improved if the
coach has an understanding and appreciation of his/her
legal duties, and most importantly, practices these
standards regularly.
REFERENCES
Adams, S.H. (1993). Duty to properly instruct. Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 64 (2), 24-26.
American Sport Education Program (1989). Nine legal
duties of coaches. In Martens, R., Successful Coaching
(3rd) (2004). Human Kinetics; Champagne, IL.
American Sport Education Program (2008). About
ASEP. Retrieved September 25, 2008 from
http://www.asep.com/about.cfm.
Borkowski, R. D. (1985). From the bench: Duty to offer
proper instruction. Coaches Legal Report,
December 1985.
Borkowski, R. D. (2008). Legal duties of a coach.
Safety/Risk Management. East Penn Rugby Union
Newsletter.
Beckett v. Clinton Prairie School Corp, 504 N.E. 20 552 (Ind.
1987).
Burgeson, C., Wechsler, H., Brener, N.D., Young, J.C.,
& Spain, C.G. (2001). Physical education and
activeity: Results from the school health policies
and programs study 2000. Journal of School Health, 71,
279-293.
Castro v. Los Angeles Board of Education, 54 Cal. App. 3d
232 (Cal. App. LEXIS 1130; 126 Cal. Rptr. 537,
1976).
Conn, J. & Razor, J. (1989). Certification of coaches: A
legal and moral responsibility. Physical Educator, 46
(3), 161-165.
Dangerous Minds (2004). Retrieved September 10, 2008
from http://www.cbsnews.com/ Stories/2004/04/12/
48hours/main611479.shtml.
Gaskin, L.P. (2001). Supervision. In Cotton, D. J.,
Wolohan, J.T., & Wilde, T. J (2001) Law for
Recreation and Sport Managers. Kendall/Hunt:
Dubuque, IA.
Glankler v. Rapides Parish School Board, 610 So.2d 1020
(La. App. 1993).
Herring v. Bossier Parish School District, 632 So.2d 920
(La.App. 1994).
Jarreau v. Orleans Parish School Bd., No. 92-C-2322,
Supr. La., 605 So. 2d 1378 (1992 La. LEXIS 3226,
1992).
Kaiser, R.A. (1986). Liability and law in recreation, parks,
and sports. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
LaVetter, D. (2005). Transportation safety starts with
policy change. NCAA News, December 5, 2005).

13. 12
Leahy v. School Board of Hernando County, 450 So.2d 883
(Fla.App. 1984).
Maloy, B. P. (2001). Safe environment. In Cotton, D. J.,
Wolohan, J.T., & Wilde, T. J (2001) Law for
Recreation and Sport Managers. Kendall/Hunt:
Dubuque, IA.
Martens, R. (2004). Successful coaching (3rd). Human
Kinetics: Champagne, IL.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(1995). National Standards for Athletic Coaches.
Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt.
National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(2008). National Council for Accreditation of
Coaching Education. Retrieved October 1, 2008
from http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/tem-plate.
cfm?template=programs-ncace.html
National Association of State Boards of Education
(NASBE) (2003). Education requirements for ath-letic
coaches. NASBE policy update, 11 (4). Retri-eved
August 22, 2008, from http://www.nasbe.org
/Educational_Issues/Policy_Updates/11_4.html
National Council for Accreditation of Coaching
Education (NCACE) (2006). NCACE program reg-istry
and approved program list. NASPE. Retrieved
August 22, 200, from http://www.aahperd.org/
naspe/template.cfm?template=programs-html
National Federation of State High School Associations
(2005). Coaching Education Program Retrieved
September 20, 2008 from http://www.nfhs.org
National Federation of State High School Associations
(NFHS) (2007). 88th Annual NFHS Summer Meet-ing
held in Palm Desert, CA, July 2007. Retrieved
August 28, 2008 from http://www.nfhs.org/web/
2007/08/88th_annual_nfhs_summer_meeting.aspx
National Federation of High School Association
(NFHS) (2008). High school sports participation
increases again; boys, girls and overall participation
reach all-time highs. Retrieved October 15, 2008
from http://www.nfhs.org/web/2008/09/
high_school_sports_participation.aspx
Neish, N.A. (1996). Tort liability in high school sport.
Coach and Athletic Director, 10 (3), 22-24.
Nygaard, G. & Boone, T.H. (1985). Coaches guide to sport
law. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Paralyzed high school player settles for $12.5 million
(2008). From the Gym to the Jury, 19 (1), p 1.
Pittman, A. (1994). Legal and safety issues in school
transportation. Journal of Legal Aspects of Sport, 4 (1),
18-28.
Refurbished football helmets face safety scrutiny (2008).
From the Gym to the Jury, 19 (1), p. 3.
Sharp, L.A., Moorman, A. M., & Claussen, C.L. (2007).
Sport law: A managerial approach. Holcomb
Hathaway: Scottsdale, AZ.
Toller v. Plainfield School District 202 et al, 211 Ill. App.3d
554 (582 N.E.2d 237, 1991).
Vendrell v. School District No. 26C, Malheur County, 233
Ore 1 376 P.2d 406 (Ore. Supr. Ct. 1962).
Van der Smissen (1990). Legal liability and risk management
for public and private entities. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
Weiss v. Collinsville Community Unit School District No. 10,
119 Ill. App. 3d 68 (456 N.E. 2d 614, 1983).
Wilson High School sex hazing case makes national
news. The Buffalo News. Retrieved October 10, 2008
from http://buffalonews.typepad.com/niagra_
views/2008/08/wilson -high-sch.html
David LaVetter is a professor in the Department of
HPESS, Arkansas State University
Calendar
Event Date Place
AAHPERD LDC June 17-20, 2009 Washington, DC
Southern District LDC June 26-27, 2009 Myrtle Beach, SC
ArkAHPERD Board Meeting August 8, 2009 Little Rock, AR
Southern District Student LDC October 22-25, 2009 Camp Letts, MD
ArkAHPERD Convention November 5-6, 2009 Eureka Springs, AR
Southern District Convention February 10-14, 2010 Myrtle Beach, SC
AAHPERD National Convention March 16-20, 2010 Indianapolis, IN

14. A Peer Reviewed Article
Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors of African
American Adolescents
Brian Gordon, Michael Perko, Lori Turner,
and Deidre Leaver-Dunn
13
Abstract
The U. S. has had the highest rates of Sexually
Transmitted Infections (STIs) in the industrialized world
for almost a decade. American adolescents are plagued
by effects of risky sexual behavior as the prevalence of
most STIs peaks during adolescence. Approximately 3
million adolescents are infected with STIs. African Am-erican
adolescents report earlier age of sexual initiation,
which places them at an increased risk of negative health
outcomes. The purpose of this paper was to apply the
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to sexual attitudes,
beliefs, and intentions of African American adolescents.
A literature review was conducted using Medline,
Pubmed and Google Scholar. Studies were reviewed
based on identified use of TRA or TRA constructs and
if sexual behavior or a related outcome was addressed.
Most studies have focused on the influence of
sociodemographic and family factors resulting in a lack
of knowledge concerning the more proximal factors that
influence adolescents’ sexual decision making. Applying
the TRA may assist in developing interventions to delay
early onset of sexual initiation among African American
adolescents. To facilitate healthy attitudes toward delay-ing
sexual activity, interventions must focus on
generating attitudes consistent with favorable ideas
regarding delayed sexual activity.
Introduction
“Today’s adolescents face demands and expectations, as well as
risks and temptations, that appear to be more numerous and
complex than those adolescents faced only a generation ago”
D. A. Hamburg, 1993.
Early sexual initiation among American adolescents
represents a major public health problem (American
Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), 2001). The teen birth rate
has increased 3% since 2005 (Hamilton, Martin, &
Ventura, 2007). This increase is the largest single year
increase since 1989, and the U.S. teen birth rate is the
highest it has been in almost 50 years (Hamilton, Martin,
& Ventura, 2007). While each racial cohort experienced
increases in birth rates, African American adolescents
(AAas) experienced significantly higher rises than White
adolescents (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2007). AAas
experience greater unplanned pregnancies and sexually
transmitted infections STIs) than their counterparts.
(National health objectives outline increasing the pro-portion
of adolescents who abstain from sexual inter-course
or use condoms if sexually active (CDC, 2004).
Forty eight percent of male and 46% of female
adolescents have had sexual intercourse (National Youth
Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey (YRBSS), 2005).
Male adolescents were more likely than females to have
had sex with four or more people in their lifetimes
(YRBSS, 2005). When comparing adolescents by race,
68% of AAas reported ever having sex, 17% stated they
had sex before age thirteen, and 28% had sex with 4 or
more people, compared to White adolescents who re-ported
43%, 4%, and 11% respectively (YRBSS, 2005).
African American adolescents experience pregnancy
rates almost three times higher than White adolescents.
In 1997 the pregnancy rate for AAas was estimated to
be 17.0% while the estimated rate for White adolescents
was 6.5% (Ventura, Mosher, Curtin, Abma, & Henshaw,
2001). AAas experienced the highest single year increase
in teen birth rates at 5% compared to a 3% increase for
White adolescents (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2007).
Current data indicate the birth rate for AAas is 6.37%
compared to a rate of 2.66% for White adolescents
(Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2007).
African American adolescents report earlier age of
sexual initiation, which places them at an increased risk
of poor health outcomes (Escobar-Chaves, Tortolero,
Markham, Low, Eitel, & Thickstun, 2005). Approx-imately
3 million adolescents are infected with STIs
yearly, with the highest incidence occurring in African
Americans from impoverished, inner city environments
(Bachanas, Morris, Lewis-Gess, Sarett-Cuasay, Sirl, Riles,
& Sawyer, 2002). African American adolescents are dis-proportionately
affected by STIs with rates more than 7
and 23 times that of White adolescents for chlamydia
and gonorrhea respectively (CDC, 2004A; CDC, 2001;
CDC, 2002). In 2005, AAas experienced 55% of HIV
infections (CDC, 2005). In 2004, AAas 13-19 years of
age made up 15% of the adolescent population, but
accounted for 73% of the incidence of Acquired Imm-une
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (CDC, 2004). Factors
such as gender, race and ethnicity, environment, age,
and attitudes contribute to sexual behaviors of adoles-cents
(Manlove, Terry-Humen, Papillo, Franzetta,
Williams, & Ryan, 2002). Males are more likely to initiate
sex early and have multiple partners; minorities are more
likely to engage in behaviors that lead to early pregnancy
and STIs (Abma, Driscoll, & Moore, 1998; Miller, Nor-
ton, Curtis, Hill, Schvaneveldt, & Young, 1997; Raine,
- continued on p. 18 -

15. ArkAHPERD 2008
14

16. CONVENTION
15

17. ArkAHPERD 2008 Award Winners
Honor Award
Jim Stillwell
Dance Educator Student Research
Susan Mayes Kevin Hicks
Elementary School TOY Middle School TOY
Jennifer Straub Kathy Wormington
JRFH Coordinator of the Year HFH Coordinator of the Year
Teresa Bailey Natalie Stricklin
16

18. ArkAHPERD 2007 Scholarship Winners
Past President Jeff Farris Jr.
Rayanne Gordon Charles Farley
Newman McGee Newman McGee
Tim Palmer Cheyenne Savony
2007 SuperStars Competition
``
17

19. 18
- continued from p. 13 –
Jenkins, Aarons, Woodard, Fairfax, El-Khorazaty, &
Herman, 1999; Santelli, Lowry, Brener, & Robin, 2000;
Shrier, 2004). Adolescents from disadvantaged comm.-
unities with high crime and poverty rates are more likely
to have sex, become pregnant, and give birth when
compared with adolescents from advantaged com-mun-ities
who are less likely to engage in risky behaviors
(Billy, Brewster, & Grady, 1994;Brewster, Billy, &
Grady, 1993; Hogan, & Kitagawa, 1985; Santelli et al.,
2000; Sucoff & Upchurch, 1998; Manlove et al., 2002).
Other factors that influence sexual behavior are drug
use, problem drinking, and smoking (Zabin, 1984;
Zabin, Hardy, Smith, & Hirsch, 1986; Mott & Haurin,
1988; Orr, Beiterm, & Ingersoll, 1991).
Purpose of Study
Sexual behavior among African American adolescents
requires immediate attention, is a complicated issue and
appears to be influenced by a variety of factors. Use of
behavior theory may assist in understanding and
predicting these behaviors. The purpose of this study
was to apply the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to
the sexual attitudes, beliefs, and intentions of African
American adolescents.
METHODS
A comprehensive literature review was conducted
using Medline, Pubmed and Google Scholar. Key words
were adolescents, African Americans, sexual behaviors,
sexual initiation, sexual outcomes, media exposure and
Theory of Reasoned Action. Studies were reviewed
based on identified use of TRA or TRA constructs and
if sexual behavior or a related outcome was addressed.
RESULTS
Theory of Reasoned Action
Buhi and Goodson (2007) conducted a comprehend-sive
literature review to examine predictors of adoles-cent
sexual behavior. Most studies have focused on the
influence of sociodemographic and family factors (Gill-more,
Archibald, Morrison, Wilsdon, Wells, Hoppe,
Nahom, & Murowchick, 2002). Carvajal, Parcel, Basen-
Enquist, Banspach, Coyle, Kirby & Chan (1999) noted
that such a focus has resulted in a lack of knowledge of
the more proximal factors that influence adolescents’
sexual decision making. The Theory of Reasoned Action
(TRA) may be appropriate to identify possible factors
that influence adolescent sexual behavior.
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) has been used
to determine the weight of attitudes and subjective
norms on intentions to perform behaviors such as
alcohol abuse, mammography use, and sun protection
use. Application of the TRA to early initiation of sexual
activity may provide insights and strategies for inter-vention
development.
TRA, originally developed by Martin Fishbein in 1967
(Fishbein, 1967) was later refined with the assistance of
Icek Ajzen. The TRA was developed through an effort
to understand the relationship between attitudes, inten-tions,
and behaviors (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The
TRA was developed to predict behavior by assessing the
target population's attitudes toward the behavior and the
perceived norms regarding the behavior. The concept is
that attitudes and norms predict intentions, and inten-tions
predict behavior.
TRA utilizes various micro and macro factors when
explaining behavior, and provides a framework for
deciphering actions by identifying, measuring, and
combining beliefs that are relevant to individuals or
groups, allowing researchers to understand the reasons
that motivate the behavior of interest (Glanz, Rimer, &
Lewis, 2002). The two basic assumptions of TRA are 1)
people will make rational decisions concerning the
behavior with appropriate information, and 2) the
behavior of interest is under volitional control. Ajzen
and Fishbein (1980) consider addictive type behaviors
such as smoking and nicotine addiction to not be under
volitional control. As such, they concluded the TRA is
not appropriate for explaining or predicting such be-haviors.
Therefore, it is assumed that African American
adolescents have the ability to make rational decisions
concerning sexual behavior and that sexual initiation or
abstinence is a choice that African American adolescents
consciously make.
The TRA has been useful in predicting and explaining
a variety of behaviors (Gastil, 2000; Montano & Taplin,
1991; Morrison, Spencer, & Gilmore, 1998; Steen, Peay,
& Owen, 1998). TRA was successfully used to predict
adolescents’ sexual behavior and intentions, their dietary
supplement use, and their AIDS preventive behaviors
(Carvajal et al., 1999; Gillmore et al., 2002; Flores,
Tschann, & Marin, 2002; Perko, Bartee, Dunn, Wang, &
Eddy, 2000; Fisher, Fisher, & Rye, 1995).
Gillmore et al. (2002) tested the TRA to predict
adolescents’ sexual behavior. Sexual intercourse was
associated with intentions to have sex, and intentions
were associated with attitudes and general norm. In an
effort to understand beliefs related to AIDS preventive
behaviors among high school adolescents, Fisher,
Fisher, and Rye (1995) conducted a prospective study of
165 9th grade students. They noted that preventive
behaviors were predicted by behavior intentions, inten-tions
were a function of attitudes toward prevention and
norms, and subjective norms related to preventive
behaviors were significantly correlated with perceptions
of significant other’s beliefs. The aforementioned re-search
provides evidence for the use of the TRA in
predicting distinct adolescent behaviors. Based on this
research it is rational to hypothesize that the TRA can
be useful in predicting AAas’ sexual attitudes and
behaviors. The constructs of this model will be
discussed in detail.
Behavioral Intentions
According to the TRA the immediate determinant of a
person’s behavior is that person’s intention to perform
or not to perform a specific behavior. Ajzen and Fish-bein
(1980) postulated this based on comparisons of the
strength of the intention-behavior correlation to other
kinds of antecedent factors. They consistently found
that the intention correlation to behavior is significantly

20. 19
greater than that of any other factor, with typical
correlations ranging between 0.72 and 0.96.
Two factors influence the accuracy of intentions
predicting behavior. First is the time interval between
assessing intentions and subsequent behavior. Fishbein
and Ajzen (1975) stated that the level of accuracy
decreases as the time interval increases. They believe
that this exists due to unexpected events that occur over
time. Second, possible known behavioral alternatives are
assessed. For example, African American adolescents
can choose to abstain from sex, use condoms if sexually
active, or participate in risky sexual activities. To
increase the accuracy of intention in predicting future
sexual behavior, the investigator needs to determine the
individual’s intention concerning sexual behavior. In
general, individuals will adopt the behavior associated
with their strongest intention.
Gillmore et al.(2002) tested the TRA to predict
adolescents’ sexual behavior. The initial dataset was
collected when adolescents were in grades 3-6, and the
follow up dataset was acquired when adolescents were
in grades 10-12. Sexual intercourse was associated with
intentions to have sex, and intentions were associated
with attitudes and general norm.
Attitude Toward the Behavior
Referring to Figure 1, the TRA model shows that
behavioral intention is a direct function of two specific
and independent determinants. Ajzen and Fishbein
(1980) identified these determinants as attitude toward
the behavior, which is a personal factor, and subjective
norm, a factor reflective of social influence (discussed
later). Attitude toward the behavior is defined as a
person’s positive or negative evaluation of personal
performance of the behavior. For most behaviors under
volitional control, both of these factors are strong
predictors of behavioral intention.
A summary of TRA research studies presented by
Ajzen (1988) shows that the influence of attitude toward
the behavior and subjective norm varies across
behaviors and populations with correlations ranging
from 0.40 and 0.73. For most behaviors, the influence
of the attitudinal component outweighs that of the
subjective component. Thus, based on TRA research, it
is safe to assume that most individuals will intend to
perform a behavior when they evaluate its consequences
positively and they believe that significant others think
they should perform the behavior.
Carvajal et al. (1999) conducted a longitudinal study to
examine the sexual behaviors of 827 adolescents. Results
were consistent for the TRA constructs indicating that
this model predicted sexual behavior. Social norms and
attitudes about postponing sex were associated with
delayed sexual initiation.
According to the TRA, a person’s attitude toward the
behavior is a function of an individual’s salient belief
that by performing the behavior, it would be likely or
probable that a positive or negative outcome would
occur. Attitudinal beliefs can vary by an associated prob-ability
that the outcome will occur, and evaluation of the
outcome as being either positive or negative. A person
can have a positive or negative attitude toward the
behavior based on the belief that performance of the be-havior
will lead to mostly positive or negative outcomes.
Adolescents’ attitudes regarding sexuality appear to be
strongly influenced by media exposure (Brown, L’Engle,
Pardun, Guang, Kenneavy, & Jackson, 2006; L’Engle,
Brown, & Kenneavy, 2006; Martino, Collins, Elliott,
Strachman, Kanouse, & Berry, 2006). Media influences
presented a significant association with early adoles-cents’
sexual intentions and behaviors (L’Engle, Brown,
& Kenneavy, 2006; Pardun, L’Engle, & Brown, 2005). A
longitudinal study showed that frequent exposure to
sexual content (viewing sexual behavior or hearing
about sex) on TV was predictive of the initiation of sex
(Collins, Elliott, Berry, Kanouse, Kunkel, Hunter, &
Miu, 2004; Martino et al., 2006).
Robinson, Price, Thompson, & Schmalzried (1998)
used constructs from the TRA to examine the sexual be-havior
of 689 rural junior high school adolescents in
Ohio. Results indicated that attitudes and efficacy
expectations significantly predicted intercourse for
males. Furthermore, they noted that efficacy expec-tations
were the only significant predictor for engaging
in sexual intercourse.
Carvajal et al. (1999) conducted a longitudinal study to
examine the sexual behaviors of 827 adolescents. In this
study attitudes about postponing sex were associated
with delayed sexual initiation. In addition, social norms
were also associated with delayed sexual initiation.
Subjective Norm
Subjective norm is an interaction between a person’s
perception of how significant others in his or her social
environment feel about the individual’s performance of
the behavior and the person’s motivation to comply
with these significant others. Subjective norm, according
to the TRA, is a function of an individual’s normative
beliefs. These beliefs are social in nature, in that they
focus on an individual’s perceived social pressures to
perform the behavior. These beliefs are affected by both
the presence of significant others (e.g., mother, father,
best friend, girlfriend/boyfriend) and the individual’s
level of motivation to comply with or please these
significant others. So, in general, people would be
expected to intend to perform the behavior if they felt
that important people in their life, with whom they were
motivated to comply, wanted them to do so.
Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) hypothesized that a
person’s behavior can be influenced by the perceived
social pressure to perform the behavior. They further
hypothesized that the relationship of the TRA to other
psychosocial factors may impact behavior in that any
outlying, distal factors will only impact behavior
indirectly through the mediating properties that include
subjective norm. Carvajal et al. (1999) conducted a
longitudinal study to examine the sexual behaviors of
827 adolescents. Social norms about postponing sex
were associated with delayed sexual initiation. Flores et
al. (2002) utilized the TRA to predict sexual intentions
of 84 Latina adolescents. In their study, social norms
were the only predictors of intentions to have sex.

21. 20
Examination of social norms includes the exploration of
the influence of media. Roe (1990) noted that music
also helped adolescents identify with peer groups. In
assessing whether early adolescents’ exposure to sexual
content in the media predicted sexual behavior by
middle adolescents, Brown et al. (2006), concluded
adolescents with frequent exposure to sexual content
were more likely to have engaged in sex. Researchers
also found that among other predictive factors, one of
the strongest predictors of risk for early sexual initiation
for white and black adolescents were perceived social
norms--the perception that his or her peers were
sexually active (Brown et al., 2006).
IMPLICATIONS
Research has supported the use of the TRA in predict-ing
and explaining a variety of adolescent behaviors.
TRA has been successfully used to predict adolescents’
sexual behavior and intentions, adolescent’s AIDS
preventive behaviors and other health behaviors (Carv-ajal
et al., 1999; Flores, Tschann, & Marin, 2002; Perko
et al., 2000; Fisher, Fisher, & Rye, 1995). Fisher, Fisher,
and Rye (1995) utilized the TRA to understand beliefs
related to AIDS preventive behaviors among high
school adolescents. They noted that preventive
behaviors were predicted by behavior intentions, inten-tions
were a function of attitudes toward prevention and
norms, and subjective norms related to preventive
behaviors were significantly correlated with perceptions
of significant other’s beliefs. This research provides
evidence for the use of the TRA in predicting distinct
adolescent behaviors including sexual attitudes, beliefs,
and intentions. Using this model to predict adolescents
who are at greatest risk for early sexual initiation is a
strategy for targeting high-risk adolescents.
Applying the TRA may assist in developing intervene-tions
to delay early onset of sexual initiation among
African American adolescents. As intention predicts
behavior, the obvious initial strategy is to reduce the
intention to engage in early sexual activity. To facilitate
healthy attitudes toward delaying sexual activity, inter-ventions
must focus on generating attitudes consistent
with favorable ideas regarding delayed sexual activity.
One issue of concern that influences adolescents’
attitudes and social norms is exposure to media.
Adolescents are saturated with mass media, spending an
average of 6 hours and 30 minutes a day utilizing media
(Rideout, Roberts, & Foehr, 2005). Despite the plethora
of media devices and technological advances such as
Ipods, MP3 players, and the Internet, music persists as
the dominant media chosen by adolescents (Rideout,
Roberts, & Foehr, 2005). Content analysis of selected
media showed that music contained 40% more sexual
content than any other medium, with 15% of music's
sexual content focusing solely on intercourse, compared
to a 3% and 4% focus in television and movies, respect-tively
(Pardun, L'Engle, & Brown, 2005). Monitoring
media exposure is a strategy that may assist in
encouraging healthy attitudes and social norms
regarding sexual behaviors among AAas.
Wingood, DiClemente, Harrington, Davies, Hook, III,
& Oh, (2001) examined the association between expo-sure
to X-rated movies and black adolescent females’
sexual and contraceptive attitudes and behaviors. Expo-sure
to X-rated movies was related to negative attitudes
toward STI/HIV prevention, and engaging in contra-ceptive
risk practices and sexual risk behaviors. These
findings support the need to monitor media exposure.
Interventions that provide exposure to safe sexual
practices are recommended. Researchers found expo-sure
to portrayals of safe sexual practices and sexual risk
was predictive of delayed sexual behavior for African
American adolescents (Collins et al., 2004). Implications
include the need to analyze how African American ado-lescents
interpret media content, and for investigation
into the contribution of various media sources on ado-lescent
sexuality (Collins et al., 2004). It was recom-mended
that the influence of mass media should receive
increased attention from future research-hers seeking to
reduce risky sexual behavior among adolescents
(L’Engle, Brown, & Kenneavy, 2006). Escobar-Chaves
et al. (2005) called for the inclusion of at-risk popula-tions
in future research addressing the influence media
has on the sexual attitudes and behaviors of adolescents.
When examining condom use, Albarracín, Johnson,
Fishbein, & Muellerleile (2001) conducted a meta-analysis
to evaluate the success of the TRA as a predict-or
of condom use. The TRA was highly successful in
predicting condom use. Researchers concluded inter-ventions
focusing on changing attitudes will produce
greater results than interventions seeking to change
norms and address perceived behavioral control.
Brown et al. (2006) suggested conducting longitudinal
studies that include younger adolescents as the study
sample. Moreover, researchers concluded more research
is needed to understand the relationship between
exposure to sexual media content and adolescents’
sexual attitudes and behaviors (Brown et al., 2006).
In summary, the problems associated with early sexual
initiation among African American adolescents are
costly. Research supports the use of the TRA in
predicting and explaining adolescent sexual behaviors.
Research provides evidence for the use of the TRA in
predicting distinct adolescent behaviors including sexual
attitudes, beliefs, and intentions. Adolescent sexual
behaviors are influenced by social norms and attitudes
toward the behavior. Using the Theory of Reasoned
Action (TRA) Model to understand and predict adoles-cents
who are at greatest risk for early sexual initiation is
a strategy for targeting high-risk adolescents.
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Department Public Health Education, University of
North Carolina at Greensboro.

24. A Peer Reviewed Article
Balance Measures Using the Biodex Balance System in
Physically Active and Non-Active Women
Tim Leszczak and Ro DiBrezzo
23
Fall related injuries are a major concern for older
American adults. According to the National Institute on
Aging (NIA; 2006), 1.6 million older adults sustain a fall
related injury each year causing fractures, hospital
admissions for trauma, loss of independence and injury
related deaths. Much of the research attributes this to
poor balance and a decrease in muscle strength. The
National Institute on Aging (2005) states that muscle
mass decreases by 22% in women and 23% in men
between the ages of 30 and 70. Concurrently, research
by Melzer, Benjuya & Kaplanski (2000) suggests that
this decrease in strength can occur as early as the third
decade for males and the second decade for females.
This diminishing strength can be detrimental to the
older population, in part leading to an increase in fall
related injuries. Similar to a decrease in muscular
strength, a low level of physical fitness has also been
associated with diminished balance.
Attaining and maintaining strength in the lower
extremity is very important for older adults to continue
as they age. Too many avoidable injuries occur due to
lack of strength and poor balance. Research shows that
it is possible to increase strength as we age and that
strength has been a major contributor in fall prevention
programs (Ikezoe, Asakawa, Tsutou, 2003). Some
programs can be as simple as walking and increasing
daily activities around the house. As long as the
individual is not sedentary their muscle strength will not
decrease as rapidly.
Studies show that exercise training for older adults can
increase muscular strength, mass and balance. A study
conducted on the effects of a six month training
program on leg power, balance and functional mobility,
found that the exercise program improved all three
variables (p < .01, p < .01 and p < .05, respectively) in an
older adult population (Ramsbottom, Ambler, Potter,
Jordan, Nevill, & Williams, 2004). Ikezoe, Asakawa &
Tsutou (2003) suggests that in order to decrease the
incidence of falls in a group of nursing home residents,
interventions to increase quadriceps strength are
essential. This study tested 25 older adult women and
found that non-fallers had significantly higher
quadriceps strength (p < .01) than fallers which indicates
muscular strength plays an important role in the
prevention of falls, but how early do these results occur?
Consistent with the results by Ramsbottom et al and
Ikezoe et al, Frontera wanted to examine the effects of
strength training in older women, at two and twelve
weeks, on specific force, muscle cross sectional area, and
muscular strength (Frontera, Hughes, Krivickas, Kim,
Foldvari, & Roubenoff, 2003). The authors found that
after 12 weeks of progressive strength training of the
knee extensors and flexors, all three variables increased.
After twelve weeks of training, specific knee extensor
force and strength increased significantly (p < .001).
These results indicated that even the force generated by
knee extensors can increase in aging adults involved in
an exercise program.
Not only does strength training play an important role
in fall prevention, but incorporating simple physical
activity into a person’s lifestyle can slow the aging
process in several ways. Research suggests that older
adults who walk on a regular basis have better postural
control than those who do not, which can reduce the
incidence of fall related injuries and increase their quality
of life (Melzer, Benjuya, & Kaplanski, 2003). Although
some researchers suggest interventions that consist of
strength training alone, physical activity can be just as
beneficial to reducing falls.
Research by McAuley, Mihalko, & Rosengren (1997)
examined the relationships among physical activity
patterns with scores on self efficacy, balance and fear of
falling. This study used a multivariate analysis where the
activity level was manipulated to see how it affected the
three aforementioned dependent variables. Overall, the
analysis suggested that highly active individuals were
significantly more efficacious (p < .001), were less
fearful of falling (p < .05), and had better balance (p <
.001), than less active participants.
Developing ways to make exercise interesting to adults
who may not be educated on health related topics can
be challenging. In a study conducted on the effects of
simple activity in a group of post menopausal women,
the authors developed a 12 month intervention that was
unique when compared to a traditional exercise
program. The intervention consisted of line dancing,
stamping of the foot, and squats which were all used to
improve balance, bone mineral density and strength,
respectively (Young, Weeks, & Beck, 2007). The results
suggested that these types of exercises, over a 12 month
period, improved all variables, but most importantly the
two balance measures, Timed Up and Go test (p < .001)
and Single Leg Stance test (p < .001) showed
significance. Therefore, physically active older women

25. 24
may have better balance scores than their physically
inactive counterparts.
In many research projects that involve measures of
balance, researchers use a force platform to determine
postural sway or displacement of center of gravity,
which are both good measures of balance. In fact, in
research mentioned above, Melzer et al (2003) tested
balance using a force platform with four force
transducers to measure vertical ground reaction forces.
The Biodex Balance System was introduced in 2000 and
there has not been a great deal of literature to support
its use as a means of measuring dynamic balance.
Although there are supporting articles related to its
validity and use in a rehab and athletic setting, there
have only been a few articles published on an older adult
population. The Biodex purports to measure and record
an individual's ability to maintain stability under dynamic
stress (Cachupe, Shifflett, Hakanov, Wughalter, 2001).
Therefore, it is one of the goals of this study to test the
Biodex Balance System with a group of women, aged
40-60, to analyze whether a relationship exists between
muscular strength, physical activity and their balance
scores on the Biodex Balance System.
As with most instrumentation, there is a learning
curve associated with the use of this device and it is
recommended that all users practice before testing
occurs. Cachupe et al (2001) performed a reliability test
on the overall stability index measure with the Biodex
Balance System and found that the reliability estimates
among healthy, athletic adults were consistent and that
the overall stability index is comparable and higher than
the measures of anterior-posterior stability index and
medial-lateral stability index. It was recommended to
perform two practice trials before two test trials for
participants to become familiar with the apparatus.
Documentation is clear that relationships exist bet-ween
strength and balance. As indicated by Melzer et al,
strength can start to decrease very early in life, and as
Ikezoe indicates, individuals with lower scores on
muscular strength tended to be considered fallers. It
was also suggested that strength can increase with age if
the proper interventions are incorporated, and that
physically active older adults tended to do better on
scores of balance and strength. However, balance
scores using the Biodex Balance System have been rare
when testing middle age women. Therefore, the
purpose of this study is to see whether relationships
exists between the overall stability index scores on the
Biodex Balance System with scores of isokinetic
strength in physically active and in-active older women.
Methods
Subjects
Twenty female subjects (aged 41-60) with varying
backgrounds in aerobic and strength training exercise
participated in the study. The participants were 51.85
years (SD = 5.58) and 163.35 pounds (SD = 29.07). All
participants volunteered for the study, which was
approved by the Institutional Review Board.
Testing Procedures
Informed consent was obtained before any testing
occurred and a physical activity questionnaire was
completed in order to separate participants into groups.
The questionnaire consisted of five questions that asked,
“…how often have you taken part in light activity,"
“…how often have you taken part in moderate activity,”
“…how often have you taken part in very hard activity,”
“…how often have you taken the stairs,” and “how
often have you taken part in strength training?” All
questions were preceded by, “In the past month….”
Responses to the questions were as follows, "more than
4 times per week," "2-4 times per week," "once per
week," "2-3 times per month," "rarely or never." The
five responses were scored on a scale of 1-5, with 5
being "more than 4 times per week," and 1 being "rarely
or never." Scores were then added and the participants
were divided into "low activity" or "high activity."
Those that were "low activity" had a score that was from
0 - 18, and those that were considered "high activity"
had a score from 19 - 25.
The participants went through the same order of
testing, which included weight, balance, flexibility, and
strength measures. All tests measures were obtained
with shoes off.
Weight and Flexibility. Weight was obtained using a
metric scale (Detecto Scale). Flexibility was tested using
a sit and reach device called a Figure Finder Flex Tester
(Novel Products, Inc., Rockton, IL) which tested the
overall flexibility of the shoulders, lower back and ham-strings.
The device is a boxlike apparatus with a
measuring scale on the upper portion labeled in centi-meters.
Participants were each told to sit on the floor
with their legs straight out ahead of them and to place
their feet against the testing apparatus shoulder width
apart. They were then told to sit upright and put their
right hand on top of left. Each participant was given 3
trials and they were instructed that the first two were
practice and the third was used for data collection.
Balance. Balance was obtained using the Biodex
Balance System (see Figure 1) (Biodex Medical Systems,
Inc.) and a score called “overall stability index” was
obtained. The Biodex Balance System (BBS) is a device
used to obtain dynamic balance in the medial-lateral and
anterior-posterior axes, and is capable of tilting in all
directions up to 20° (Cachupe et al, 2001). The level of
difficulty is determined by the amount of resistance
chosen and the resistance equates to the variance in
platform displacement (in degrees). The lower the
resistance setting the more unstable the platform will be,
whereas the higher the platform setting the more static
the platform. For this study, a platform setting of 4 (out
of 12) was chosen in order to measure dynamic balance,
which indicated that the degree of difficulty was high.
The data obtained from the device was the overall
stability index score which represented the average
degree of platform displacement over the number of
trials selected. The higher the score, the greater the
instability.
Participants were each given an explanation of the
machine and testing procedures. Two practice trials
were preceded by two test trials and all participants