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![the works cited above is a long-felt dissatisfhction l,r,ith the concept of
methocL as the organizing principle fbr L2 teachins and te acher educa-
tion. These worki can therefore be seen as herzrlding the development of
wlrat rrriglrt be called a postmethctcl pedagogl"
Continuing and consolidating the recent explorations, and taking my
TESOL {/uarierty article on the postmethod condition (Kumaravadivelu,
1994) as a point of cleparture, in this article I attempt to provide thc
fundamentals of a postmethod pedagogy. In the first section, I conceptu-
alize the parameters of a postmethgd peclagogl. In the secopd, I ofler
suggestioirs for actr.ralizing it iu terms of the anticipated roles and
funitions of learners, teachers, altd teacher educators. In the third, I
problernatize it by raisins questions and concel'ns that might colne up itl
th. p.o..r, of actr-ralizing it. I conclude by raising the prospect of the
1ru.urr,"t.r, of a postmethod peclagogy replacing the concept o-f method
ir u, organizing principle for L2 learning, teaching, and teacher
education.
CONCEPTUALIZING POSTMETHOD PEDAGOGY
I nse the Lern pedagtgl in a broad sense to inclucle not onlY issues
pertaining tcl classroom strategies, instructional materials, curricular
objcctives, and evaluation measures, but also a wide rangc of'historical,
political, and sociocultural experiences that directlv or indirectlv influ-
enr:e L2 eclucation. Within such a broad-based definition, I visualize a
postmethod pedagogl as a three-dirnensional svsteln consisting of three
pedagogic pirameters: parriculari6,, practicalin, and possibility. I discuss
telow tite ialient f'eatures of ezrch of these parameters, indicating how
they interr,leave and interact lr'ith eacl-r other.
A Pedagogy of Particularity
First and foremost, anv postmethod pedagog-v h:rs to be a pedagogy of
particulari6i That is to say, language pedagolry; to be relevant, must be
iensitive to a particular group of teachers teaching a particular group of
learners pursuing a particular set of goals u'ithin a particular institutional
context embedded in a particular sociocultural milieu. A pedagog' of
particularitr.,, then, is antithetical to the notion that there can be oue set
bf pectagogic aims ancl objectives realizable through one set of pedagogic
principles and proceclures. At its core, the idea of pedagogic particularity
ir .or.ritt"r-tt u,ith the hermeneutic perspectie of situotional, understandin,g
(Elliott, I993), l,hictr claims that a meaningful pedagog,v cannot be
constructed rvithout a holistic interpretation of particular situations and
that it cannot be imProrr
particular situations.
A1l pedagogy, like all px
ignore lived experiences-
ultimately prove to tre 's
threatening to their belief
becomes impossible" (CoI
of disillusionment that i
language teaching. From
"our choice of communic;
sort of naive ethnocentrisl
for Europe or the USA I
Pakistan, Shamim (1996)
nicative language teachinl
resistance from her lear
leading her to realize thi
actually "creating psycho
India, Tickoo (1996) poi
innovations have failed br
ological framework inhet
account local linguistic, s<
An interesting and intr
thing out there to be searr
in the fantasy world of
Particularity, as Becker (1
is not something we beg
repeating. Particularity ir
until we learn their nam,
"bird" around us and the
the language. Particularit
From a pedagogic poir
process. One simultaneor
progressive advancement
critical awareness of loca
achievement of a pedag
teachers, either individua
evaluating their outcome
tr)rlng them out to see on
continual cycle of observa
the development of conte
ate and extend Becker's (
edge teachers gain from
TOWARD A POSTMETHOD P]
538 TESOI. QUARTERLY
-.](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)
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- 2. the works cited above is a long-felt dissatisfhction l,r,ith the concept of methocL as the organizing principle fbr L2 teachins and te acher educa- tion. These worki can therefore be seen as herzrlding the development of wlrat rrriglrt be called a postmethctcl pedagogl" Continuing and consolidating the recent explorations, and taking my TESOL {/uarierty article on the postmethod condition (Kumaravadivelu, 1994) as a point of cleparture, in this article I attempt to provide thc fundamentals of a postmethod pedagogy. In the first section, I conceptu- alize the parameters of a postmethgd peclagogl. In the secopd, I ofler suggestioirs for actr.ralizing it iu terms of the anticipated roles and funitions of learners, teachers, altd teacher educators. In the third, I problernatize it by raisins questions and concel'ns that might colne up itl th. p.o..r, of actr-ralizing it. I conclude by raising the prospect of the 1ru.urr,"t.r, of a postmethod peclagogy replacing the concept o-f method ir u, organizing principle for L2 learning, teaching, and teacher education. CONCEPTUALIZING POSTMETHOD PEDAGOGY I nse the Lern pedagtgl in a broad sense to inclucle not onlY issues pertaining tcl classroom strategies, instructional materials, curricular objcctives, and evaluation measures, but also a wide rangc of'historical, political, and sociocultural experiences that directlv or indirectlv influ- enr:e L2 eclucation. Within such a broad-based definition, I visualize a postmethod pedagogl as a three-dirnensional svsteln consisting of three pedagogic pirameters: parriculari6,, practicalin, and possibility. I discuss telow tite ialient f'eatures of ezrch of these parameters, indicating how they interr,leave and interact lr'ith eacl-r other. A Pedagogy of Particularity First and foremost, anv postmethod pedagog-v h:rs to be a pedagogy of particulari6i That is to say, language pedagolry; to be relevant, must be iensitive to a particular group of teachers teaching a particular group of learners pursuing a particular set of goals u'ithin a particular institutional context embedded in a particular sociocultural milieu. A pedagog' of particularitr.,, then, is antithetical to the notion that there can be oue set bf pectagogic aims ancl objectives realizable through one set of pedagogic principles and proceclures. At its core, the idea of pedagogic particularity ir .or.ritt"r-tt u,ith the hermeneutic perspectie of situotional, understandin,g (Elliott, I993), l,hictr claims that a meaningful pedagog,v cannot be constructed rvithout a holistic interpretation of particular situations and that it cannot be imProrr particular situations. A1l pedagogy, like all px ignore lived experiences- ultimately prove to tre 's threatening to their belief becomes impossible" (CoI of disillusionment that i language teaching. From "our choice of communic; sort of naive ethnocentrisl for Europe or the USA I Pakistan, Shamim (1996) nicative language teachinl resistance from her lear leading her to realize thi actually "creating psycho India, Tickoo (1996) poi innovations have failed br ological framework inhet account local linguistic, s< An interesting and intr thing out there to be searr in the fantasy world of Particularity, as Becker (1 is not something we beg repeating. Particularity ir until we learn their nam, "bird" around us and the the language. Particularit From a pedagogic poir process. One simultaneor progressive advancement critical awareness of loca achievement of a pedag teachers, either individua evaluating their outcome tr)rlng them out to see on continual cycle of observa the development of conte ate and extend Becker's ( edge teachers gain from TOWARD A POSTMETHOD P] 538 TESOI. QUARTERLY -.
- 4. hear "bird" arouncl them, but it is their livecl experience i" :l: classroom ancl their pursuit ot: u ptaugog,v of particulirity that will help them distinguish birds, learn their names' and hear their songs' In other lvorcls, context-senrl*t p"Jugogic knowleclge can emerge onlv from the pracrice of parric*lari,y. il".o"re the partic.iiar ir so deeply embe.ded in in"-fru.,i*1, ancl ."'""tt be achieYecl or understood without it' a ft.tg"$, ;f particularitv becornes in essence a peclagouv of practicaliq' as u,ell. A PedagogY of PracticalitY A pedagogl' ol practicalitv clocs not pertain merelv to the cvery"day practice of classroorLteachirig. It petrtain.s to a mr.rch largef issue that has a direct impact or-,f" pt^?tice of classroom te:rching' namell" the relationship t .t u.",-t ihtit, ot-"l practicc' Ge,eral edr'rcatio,ists (e'g'' Elliott, lggl) havc i.rrrg ...og"izecl t5e h:r',firl elfect of rhe thctr.r'' prerctice clichotom,v. ii'",t ufA"" tirat theolI rinci pt'actice mutually irrform,andtogetherconstitute,adialecticalpraris.:rri.affirmatiorrtlrat hasrecentlyi,rflue,,c.dL2teaclringarrclte:rcherechtcatlot-tasrr.ell(e.9., Freeman, 1998). one clf the rva,vs by which eclucationists have aclcilessecl thc theor-v/ pracrice dichotomv li ;t positing ar distinction__beflr-cen pr-ofessional theories and personal theoiies. AJcording to o'Hanlon (,19!)il), profes- sional theclries are those that are generate-d b,v experts.arlcl arc generallt' transrnitted t.o- ..rrt..s of higher learning. Peisonal .theol'ies' on the .ther hancl, are those that teacfrers develop by inte'prctirrs arlcl appiling ;;;i;""i th.ories i,-r p.u.tl.ut. sit,ati.ns ivhile ther. are on the iob' Although this distinction sounds eminendy sensibie. in lealin' the expelt-generateclprof.essionaltheclriesareoftetrralr.rcclrr'hereasthe ;l-j.l"rlgeneratecl personal theories are often isnorecl' Evidentlr.' in a rvell_meaning u*.Jpii" cr.oss the borclcrs betr,veen theorr ailc1 pr-actice, vet another:"line oi clernzrrcation has been clralvn, tilis ti.re bettr'een iheorists' theclrv and teachers' theor" Thisclistiirctionbetweentheorists,theclryarrdtcachcrs.thconhas,in pu*, ir-rn,r"r-r."a,r-r. "rrpt-ro.ri, ,r. reflectirre ieachi*g a.cl acticltt resealch. "Thefunclament?rlaimofactionresearch"'asEliiott(19!11)llzrkes crvst:rl clear, "is ," il;;;t'; practice rather than to proclucc krro$'ledge" (p ag). The sugeestion thit reachers sho.ld corrit..,.t tl'rei' personal tl-reories bv testitrg, ir.t,-,p"ti"g, ancl juclging the tlsefi'rlncss rlf profcs- sional theor:ies proposecl b,v erperts tttit"t onlv a narror spzrce tor tcachers to functJn rr,titr.rtt-t as reflective inclivicl.als' Irrrlced' this Srrsgestionlear.esr'rervlittle.roomfclrself:corrceptuaiizatiorrandsclf- constnrcLior',otp.augogicknolvleclge'becarrseteachers:rretreated merely as imPlementors of Giroux, 1988; Kincheloe" 1{ soul-searching among edu' neering advocates of refler sobering thoughs on their Despite the loftY rhetoric s reflective, in realitY reflecti genuine teacher der'eloPm ieform. Instead, an illusior that has maintained in u teacher. (P.201) A pedagogY of Practicali the deficiencies inherent i versus-teachers'-theolv dic ers themselves to theorizt the orize (Kumaravadivelu' edge has to emerge fio t"uihi.rg, then theY ougl individuals. This objectir-e to put into Practice theori be achieved onlY bY helPi attitude, and autonomy ne pedagogic knowledge tha a worthwhile endeavor' In short, a PedagogY theory of Practice. This : st raighforward ProPositi' usable unless it is generat it is the Practicing teache best suited to Produce sl conceived when, to Paral action and thought or, rr and thought in action' It thoughtfulness. In the cont thoughtfulness simultant of teachers that enable analyze and assess inforr then choose the best ar [urther critical aPPraisa on-going, living, workin continual reflection and If teachers' reflection TOWARD A POSTMETHOD ] TESOL QUARTERLY
- 6. the practicalitv coin, their insights ancl intuition can be seen as t oustitrrt- irrg ln" crther.. Seclirnented ar'id solidifiecl throueh prior and ongoinQ encounters r'itt, t.u.r-ti,,g ancl teaching is the teacher's unexplained and solnetimes irnexplainabl'" urrur.rr.ss ti{ rvhat constitut.es good reachi,g' Srrc}r an a{arel]ess h,., b.",., variouslv ref-er:red to aS the telcltel..s conceptirnr ctf practice (Freeman, 1996)' sense oJ plauslDllzf.(Prabhu' 1990)' or beliefs and ossurnpt-^ 1t'ttooa'' t996)' Haigreurves- (1994). has callerl it the ahic oJ pradit:atit1-a phrase he uses to refer to the teacher's pou,erful serlse ot lr,hat ll,clrks ancl u,Irat rloesrr,t; of rvlrich charrges rr.ill go ancl r,'.hich rviil not-llot in thc abstract, ()r even zls a general tule, hut ftrr l/zls tt::rcher. in t/iis c.nt.xi. rr, trri, sirnple 1,et clee plv influential se nse 0l Practical- it1' amorrg tezrchers is the clistiliatio" tlf t'tln'plt:x.a"cl ryt::l cornbinations of purpose. Pers()n, politics ancl rvorkplace consfaints' (p' 12) Nearl,v a quarter century aso, v'an Nlarten (1977) callecl this alvareness sinrply sense mahing. Teachers'sensemakingmatlrresover.timeasthevlearn-to.copervith competing pulls antl p..,Jt"tt reP-re::n..tir]g tlt t""t:lt:rn<tcharacter of prof-essio,al p."po.oti'.rr, p.rrorrui belief!, iristimtio,al constrrtints, learuer expectations,assessmentinstrtrnrerrts,arrclotherfztctors.ThisSeeminslY instinctir,e urrd iaior.lrr.ruti. ,.rrt.rr.e of teacher.s' sense makirrg disgr-rises the fact that it is ibrmecl ancl lc-fbrmecl by the- pedagogic factors gc)r,erninS the r-nicrocosm of the classroom as rvell as by the sociopolitical F;.;t erilanating fron-r outside' Consequerlth" sens.e -:ki"g i::l:,::.: that teachers vieiv peclagogr not merely as ir mechanism for maxlmlzrng Iearningopportrrnities.,i,r,tlreclassrclom,brrtalsoasarneatrslbr undcrstancllrrg ur-ra i*nsfoilning possibilities in ancl outside the class- room. Iil tiris selrse, a peclagogl: i'f practicalitr mctarnorphose's into lt pedagoS' of Possibilitv' A PedagogY of PossibilitY Theicleaolapedagogt,'ofpossibilitr'isclerilecinrainlvfrornthel,r,orks of the Brazilian "a,.iot:o Paulo Freire. fienerral eclucationists such as Sirnon (1988) and (]iroux (1988)' ancl TESOL practitioners such as Auerbach (1995) ancl Benesch (2001), take the position that pedagopry" anv peclagog, i, i-fii*tedin relations of porveiancl dominance' and is i,rplernentecl to crlate ancl sustain social ineqr-ralities' Acknorvleclging ancl highlie.hti,s st,dents' ancl teachers' srrbieci positi.ns-that is. their class, race, genclcr, ancl ethnici['-these authors encourage strrdents and teachers to questicrn the statr-rs quo that keeps them.subjugated, They advocate o p.a.gqgy of possibilitY that empowers participants and point TESoI, QT]ART},RI,Y to "the need to dereloP nractices that woth u'ith t- pedagogical setting" (Giro The exPeriences Partr( shaped not iust bv the le tered in the Past but also' environment in which the potential to alter Pedago pected bY PolicY Planners' iior instance, Canagarajah in civil war-torn Sri tanlu of English language and ' cultural and historical b used it on their own teflrrs values. He rePorts holr'th and graPhics, actuallY refi of their ESL textbooks, authors. The students' re strategic waYs bY which resilient abilitY of humi themselves from amidst tl SimilarlY, arralYzir,g U structures of aPartheid Sr talk rePresented "stYles teachers and students co and demeaning constrai Unpublished rePorts fror nicition, October 19, 19' secondary schools of tl movement conditioned z Sri Lankan, South Afric: some as extreme examP turmoil outside the cla gender, class, and othe content and character o 2001). In the Process of se reality, a PedagogY of identity. More than anY tion provides its Partici continual quest for sub points out, "language ir iocial organization and defined and contested TOWARD A POSTMETHOD 542
- 8. oursehres, our subjectivit)', is constructed" (p.21). This is even more applicable to L2 education, rvhich brings languages and cultrrrcs in .tr.,to.t. That this contact results in identitv coullicts has been contjnc- inslv brought out by Norton's (2000) study of immisr:rnt u'ometr in Cinacla. "T;he historicall,v and socially constn.rcted identity of learner-s," Norton observes, "inflr,rences the subject position the-v takc up in the language classroom ancl the relationship thel'establish n'ith the language t.,.f.h.i;, (p l42).In a sense, rhe classroom behavior of the Sri Lankan, South African, ancl Palestinian students fltentioned earlicr is an unrrris- takable manifestatic'rr-r of their stlusgle to preser-'e and protect their individual and collective iclentity. What fbllorvs from the above discussion is that language teachers can ill aflord to ignore the sociocr.rltural realitl' that influences identiw fonnation in the classroom, nor can the,v afTbrd to separate the linguistic rleeds of lcarners I'rom their social needs. In other {()rds, languaee reachers catlnot hope to full1' sirtisfi, their pedagogic obligations rvithout at the sante time satisfiing their social obligations. They lvill be able ttr reconcile these seemillsly competing forces if thef, "achieve a deepening awarelress both of the sociocr.rltural realitv that shapes their lives and of their capacit-v to transform that realitv" (r'an N{anen , 1977, p' 222) ' Such a deepening'ararc-ness has a built-in qualitv that transfbl'nls the life of the plrson who adopts it. Studies b,v Clandinin, l)ar.ies, Flogan, and Kennarcl (1993) attest to this self-transforming phenomenon: As rve norkecl togethel ne tirlked about tvat's of seeing rterv possibilit]'itl our practices ^. t"u.ir"rr, zrs teactrer educators, ancl rvith chilclren in our class- ioorn. As ie sa'possibilities in our prof'essional liles rve also came t() sec ne{ possilrilities itt ottr pcts,,llal lires. rP.:( lU) Summary In this section, I herve suggested that one wa,v of conceptuurlizing a postrnethod pedagogl is to look at it three-clirnensionalh-as a ped:igop' tf particular:it1,, practicalitr.., ancl possibilitl,. As a peclagogl'of particrtrlaritt', p<titmethocl pcclagog, rcjects t5e ad'.cacy of a predete.ni.ed set .f ieneric priniiples and procedures aimed at realizills a predcterrrlined iet of ge,reriC aims and objectir,es. Insteird, it seeks to facilitate the advancenletrt of a context-sensitir,e, location-specilic pedagogl' thart is basecl on a true understanding of local linguistic, sociocultural, and political particularitics. As a perlagogl' of- practicalitl', postnrethocl peda- g"g,u ...i.cts the artificial dichotom-v betr'vcen theorists 'ho have been irrigr-r.a the role of producers of knowledge and teachers'who have becn assignecl the role of cclnsurners of knor,r'ledge. Instead, it seeks to [upturc such a reified role iatio theorize from their Pra pedagogy of possibiliq P language education tha elements that obtain insit to tap the socioPolitical c to the classroom so that i quest for idendry format of the particular, the Pra They inter"weave and inLe in which the whole is grt If one assumes that tt practicality, and Possibilit a postmethod Pedagogr- beyond the limited and question presents itself: actualize such a Pedagog the following section. ACTUALIZING POS' The very nature of z context sensitivity demar to suit various necessities of methods for the PurP( futile. However, it shoul broad road maP that inr profitably take. I attemF anticipated roles of learr these three groups of fe upon a commonjourne postrnethod pedagogY de practitioners. The Postmethod Lea The postmethod lean learner autonomy has autonomy: academic au omy is related to learnil ers are willing and abk 19BB). Taking charge hz TOWARD A POSTMETHODTESOI, QUARTI]RI,Y
- 10. cognitire, metacognitive, ancl affective techniques that the,v can trsc for successful learning. Researcll on this aspect of learner autonomv has produced taxonornies of learning strategies (e.g., Orford, 1990) and learning stl,les (e.g., Reid, 1998) as well as r.rser-friendly manuals (e.g., Chamot, Bernharcl, El-Dinary,, & Robbins, 1999). They havc been fbund usef'ul in rnaking learncrs rnol-e active participants in tl-reir languzrge Iearning r.vhile at the sarne tirne rnakirlg teachers rnore sensitive to learner diversity and learning difficulties. Eflorts have also been rnade tcr plan and implement learner trainins fbr language Iearners and teachers (Ellis & Sinclaiq 1989; Scharle & Szabo, 2000, rr{cnclen, 1991). The rvealth of information ncxv ar,ailable on lcarning strategies and stvles opens up opportunities for learners to monitor their learning process and maximize their learnins potential. With the help ol their teachers and thcir peers, postmethod learners can exploit some of these opport rrnities nith a vierr'tcr . identiflins their learning strateEJies and str,les bv administering, or having adrninistered, selcct portions o1 strategy inventories and stfle srlrvevs, and by writinp; their ol,n language learning histories o stretching their strategies and str,les br incor-poletiug solne clf those emplovecl bv successful language learners (For example, if some learrers are global in their learning s$'le, the,y rnight havc tct develop stratesies that are associated lith the analr"tic learning stylc, such as breaking dolvn lr,ords and sentences in order to lind meaning.) r cvaluating their onuoing learning outcomes bv monitorinu language Iearning progress through persoual journal lr,ritings in addition to taking regular class tests and other stanclardized tests reaching out for opportr.rnities for aclclitional languagc reception clr production beyond lhat thev gct ill the classroorn, for erarnple, thror.rgh library resources and learning centers Unlike academic autollom,v, r'vhich is mostly' intrzrpersonal, social autonomy is interpersonal and is related to learners' abiliq'and rvilling- ness to function effcctivelv as coopelativc members of a classroom cornrnunitl,. It ref'ers to "the fact that among the stral.egies ancl rrctivities associated rrith incrrasing metacognitire a'arcr)css arrd leal rrirrg mart- agement skills are some that intolt,e interaction with others" (Br-oady & Kenning, 1996, p. 16). Leanrers can attempt to clevelop their social autonomy by, for instance, . seeking their teachers' intenention to get adequate f'eeclback on areas of clifficulty and to solve problems. Learners do this through dialogues and conversations in and outsicle the class. collaborating with other learners to pool information on a specific project they are working on. Learners do this by forming small 546 TESOL QUARTERTX groups, dividing the rlspo (e.g., dictionaries and er sharing it with the group. . taking advantage of oppo speakers of the language. in social and cultural err other participants. These activities contribute to z a sense of responsibility for a peers, and they develop a degr other learners who may be mr afe. Although academic autonol useful pathways for learners I aspect of learner autonomv i postmethod learner: liberator learners to be effective learne to be collaborative partners, I critical thinkers. Thus, liberat other two aspects of learne learners recognize sociopolitir human potential and by pr necessary to overcome those ments may sometimes take t experienced and expressed Palestinian students referred nation based on race or re orientation. More than any other educ which almost any topic poten activity offers ample opportt autonomy. Teachers can prom language classroom by . encouraging learners to a role of miniethnographer stand how language rules and also explore whose ir . asking learners to wdte d directly engage their sensr social world, and continu observations of their peer TOrrRl), POS'l'NI F.'I'i{OD I'ED (
- 12. a . helping thern form learning cornmunities where learners develop irto .,r-rifi.cl, sociallv cohesive, mutuall-v sllpPortive grogps seeking selflat'r,arcness and self-improvcment o proYiclins opportunities for learners to explore the unlimited possi- tiliti.r "ff.i.a bv on-line services on the Arorlcl Wicle Web and bringing back to the class lheir <xvn topics for discussi<ln anrl their own pcrspectives on those toPics The suegestions sketchecl above, and seyeral others that are implicit in the profeiiional literature, can easil-v be modified and t.narle rnore reler,,ant to suit the ilstructional aims/activitics and institutional con- sti-aints/resotlrces of various learning,/teaching contexts' They may be treatccl as fbundations for promotinu a firll ranSe of academic, social, and liberatory autonomv foi the benefit of the learner. Taken tosethel, these three uip..tt of autonomy promise the developlnent of the overall acaclemic abiiitr,,, inteilectual corlpetence, social consciousness, and mental attitude necessarv for learners to avail themselr'es of opportuni- ties and overconle challenges both in and or.rtside the classroorn. Clearlv, leamers rvolking ztlone cannot :rttain such a iar-reaching goal; they need the rvilling cooperation of all others lr,ho directly or indirectly shape their educatiorial .r.r.l.oo'ot, particularh' that of their teachers. Autonomous learncrs dcservc atltonomous Leachers. The Postmethod Teacher The postmethod teacher, like the postrnethod learner. is an autono- mc-rus indiviclual. Teacher autonollr-in this Lrontext entails a re:rstlnallle clegree of competence and confidelllce on the part of-teachers to want to bitiicl ancl implement their ou'n theon' of practice that is resPollsive to the particulaiities o1' their educationai contexts alcl receptive to thc porribiliti., of their sociopcilitical conclitions. Such competence and conficlence can evolve onlf if tellchers haver the desire and the detenni- nation t<t acquire and assert a fail clcgree of alrtolromy in pedagogic clccision rnaking. Teacher alltollollv is so central that it can lle seen as defining the heart of p<lstrnetliocl pccizrgoeri Teacher autonomY is shapecl b1' a professional arld persollal knorvl- eclge base t|at iras evolved tirrough formal and informal channels of ech"rcational crperience. In thc fieicl clf L,2 education, most teachers enter into the ieahn of professional knorvledge b1' and large throush zr ,,mcthocls" packaee. Thit is, the-v learn that the supposedl,v objectiye knou,leclge of' language learnins and teaching has been inertricablv linkecl tci ^ pa.tic,.lar tnethcirl, r,hich, in turn, is linkecl to a parlicular schgol of thciught in psvcholoeiri linguistics, ancl other relatecl disci- plines- When they begin r need to break awaY from order to do that, thel- 1 knowledge of learning a simply entail behavioral kr classroom; it involves a r activity, centering on tht knowing what to do" (F instantly before one's Pe camera. It evolves over ti circumstances, it is el'ider to the extent theY are willi of self-development. There has recently beel process of teacher kno${ tion. It is a sign of the tir from the publication in t} volumes on issues related bution, Woods (1996) ex1 events, activities, and intel how these interPretatior subsequent planning, thel enhancing their intellectt Freeman and Richards ( cesses teachers emPloY at and Nunan (1996) brinl rarely articulated or hearr Lamb (1996) attempt to in order to take effective in their classrooms. Finl pedagogical interaction i: authenticity. Although it is highly effort to understand tea pects of particularity and empowered to embrace a selidevelopment will rer monly occurs, as Hargrez when teachers are enc( without also connecting t when they are asked to learning without also tt images and the consequr TOWARD A POSTMETHOD PTESOL QUARTERLY
- 14. He goes on to argue, quite rightll', that r'r,hen divorced from its surround- ing social and political contexts, teachers' persclnal knorvledge can quickly turn into "parochial knor,ledge" (p. 7a) hr light of the abor.e discussion, it is reasonable to ask questions such as these: Hou,do postmethocl tezrchers pllrsue prcifessional developnrent involving the triple pedagogic parameters of particularitri practicaiitli and possibilitl,? How do they theorize fiom practice and practice u,hat the1, theorize? One possible ans{er is that they clo so through teacher research. Teacher research is initiated ancl irnplemetrtecl bv practicing teachers motirated mainl,v bv their olvn desire to self-explore ancl self-improve. fiontrary to a comnlon misconception, doing teacher research does not necessarill, involve highl1, sophisticated, statisticall,v laden, r,ariable- controlled erperirnental studies, for which practiciltg teachers hat,e r-reither the time nor the energv. Rather, it involves keeping one's eyes, ears, and mind open in the classroom to see rvhat rvorks and rvhat cloes not, udth rvhat uroup(s) of leamers, and lbr r'r,hat reason, and asscssing u,hat chanSes are necessar)/ to rnake instnrction achieve its desired soals. Teachers can conduct tcarcher research b1'cleveloping and using iuvesti- grrtiye capabilities derived from the practices of explorator,v research (Nlu,right, 1993), teacher rese;rrch cvcle (Freernan, 1998), ancl critical classroom observation (Krrrnaravadivelu, 1999a, 1 999b) . More specifi cally teachers can besin their inquirv b_v r using investigative methods such as questionnaires, sunevs, and intenriel'rrs to gather learner profiles that include information about learning strategies ancl str.les, personal identities and investrnents, ps-vchological attitudes ancl anxieties. lurd sociopolitical concerns zrnd conflicts . iclenti$,ing resezrrchable qr.restions that emerge from lezrrner profiles ancl classroour obsen'ation-question of interest to lezrrnels, teachers, or both that range fiom classroonl management to pedagogic pointers to sociopolitical problerns o clusterins the identified rescarchable questions iu terms of themes and pzrtterns, a.ncl deciding lr,hich ones can be explorcd indiriciually and r'r,hich ones collectir,cl)'rvith learners, peers, or both . exploring which clf the resout'ces learners brins rvith them can bc profitablv exploited lbr learnins, te-aching, and research purposes, includine learners' sociocultural ancl linguistic knorvledgc (c.g", exploring horv often and under lr,hat conditions the rnuch-ignored and rnuch-neglected common L1 can be used as an effectit,e means of learning and teachin5i e,en though the mandatecl mcthods and materials rnisht proscribe its use) TESOL qUARTERLY . fir-rding out to '-h.ri activities, ther- can en rvith local and cli:t.ir concerns and get rrrc: o developin{ inter'1rr'-'i their olr,n teaching .i li'arnervork that i: i,.r- berween teaclrer iut.: o determining l,hzrt ba, teachir-rg are impliecL exist ing assuntpti.l r. Iindings, and r,hat ch. b1' such tnodificati,,rr- fu these suggcstiorr) irr autonomy is "not the eu: knclrvledge br.rt, rather. th (f)iamond, 1993, p. 59) T when they exploit and c based on their edtrcati,,rr ducting more structure c1 ; on the parameters oI plrr t teacher research is doable is fully integrated n'ith cl (i993) convincingly arsr prir,'ileged position to Lrse the actir.ities are done thr, tar.rght and learned. The explorator'l actir rr road rnap to hclp teacher What specific route ther hate to negotiate. rvlrat in. and what unexpected der "road conditions" thel' en journev r.vill undoubtecll. teacher educators can F foundation throush their- The Postmethod Teacl As is lvell knclrvn bv r desisnecl to transrnit a <r knorvledge from the teacl ToARD A POSTN ETHOD PF 550
- 16. essentially top-dow, approach, teacher eclucators pcrceive their r'le to be^ one of eneineerins the class.oorr tezrchi,g of st.dent teachers, offeri,g them s.rgestions on the best wa'to tearh, rnoderine appropr-i- ate teaching behavi<x's fbr thern, and. er.aluatins their masten, of'cliscrete peclagcluic behaviors. Sr-rch a transrnission urcrclcl of teacher education is hopelesslv inadequate to produce self-directins and self-cleterminins teachers lvho constit,te the backbone of anv pcriirnethocl pecragr.,gr. o {}rat. is .eeded, then, is a funclar,e,tzrl restruct.ring .f teicher edrrcation so that it lbcuses as mtrch orr the teat:h, pa.i of te^cher educatirn as on the educntion part of it. one na),to accomplish this restmcturine is to recognize that prospcctir.e teachers en-rbarking on lbrural teacher edrrcation programs bring rvith them their: notion of 1,hat cor-rstitutes good teaching and u,hat does nclt, lar.gelt,based on their priclr edrr.atio,al experience as learners and, in sonle cases, as teachers. Thcir minds are anvthing but atheoretical clean slates. It is therefbr:e iprpgrranr to recogrrize their voices and their r,.isirx.rs. . Recogl-tizit.re prospectit'c teacherrs' r,oices ancl visions means leeitimiz- ing their knorvledse and erperience ancl inc.rporating them as an imp.rta,t part of the dialogue befil,cen teacher eclucatorl ancl prospec- tivc teachers. In other lrorcls, the interaction betll een the teachr:r educakrr ancl the prospt--ctive teachel' should bc-come clialogic in thc: Bakhtinia, sense (Ku,rara'aclir.t:lu & Bea,, lgg5). Dialogic disco,rse facilitates an interaction befl,veen rleanings, betleen beliei systeilrs, an interacl.io, that prod.ces rvhirt Bakhtin itggt) calls a res.pctri.siue und,r staruling. In such a dialogic cnrerprise, the pr.imary, ..-rp.rrrribilitr, 'f- ther teacher educator is nclt to provicle thc teeriher u,ith a^borrol,ed l,oice, howe'er enlightened it rnav bc, b.t to p.or.icle opport.nities for the dial,gic coltslt'ttcliott uf tneauirrg ,rrt ol ri l,i, l, lrir iclentirr or-rrit.e ruur elnerge. Teacher ech-rcation must therefore be conceir,ed of not as the erperience a,d i,terpretation of a preclete.r'rinecl, prescribecl peclagoeic practice bur rather as a, ongoinu, dialogicall_v co,itructecl .niity irivoi. ing fi1,o or rlorc-- criticalh' reflectir-e intcriocutors. when, througli a series of dialosic interactions, channels of corrm,nication betu,e.n teacher educators and prospective teachers ()pe. up, u,hen prospcctive teachers activc'and,fieelv use rhe lingrristic, .irlt.,.rl, orra p..lr.gogic capital thev brine $ith them, and lr,hen teacher eclucaror-s use thc'r,,i.I.,.r, teacher,s 'alues, belicfis, and krorvledge as a, intesral part of the learni,g process, the, tirc e.tire process of teacher ediicatiin becomes reflectil,e ard rer,vardins. A postmethod teacher eclucation prograrn rn,st tzrke into accorrnt the irrrpor rancc oI recoqrrizirrg teat hcrrt r.L.* lrnd risions. thc inrperuti'es of developine their critical capabilities, and the prr-rclepce of achieyins both of-these thro,gh a clialo.qic constructio, of mea,ing. I, practical terms, the role of the postmethocr teacher ed,cator bec,orires o,e o[. IESOL QLIARTERIJ . recognizing, and hell ties built into the ct teacher educators as ers as consumers of k o enabling prospectir-e r an electronic journal student teachers in clz and knowledge about ning, during, and at education program . encouraging prospect relate their personal I are being exposed to, other, assess how thr modified to suit parr mately derive their on o creating conditions fot classroom discourse an principles from their , process of theory cons . rechanneling part of * Ftazer, Harvey, Ramp research, that is, resea( . exposing prospective tt them critically engage (7994), Tollefson (199 the field's consciousnt and inequalities that ir . whenever and wherel'e fessional knowledge t directly and explicitly contexts that prospect which they plan ro woi the strengths and the u These suggestions portend they are to produce self-dir a flundamental restructurit system into an inquiry-orir demic inquiry is pedagogic TOWARD A POSTMETHOD PED
- 18. Postmethod Practitioners as Pedagogic Explorers Pedagogic exploration is an integral part of postmethod pedagogy. Contrary to the commonly held view that research belongs to the domain of the researcher, postmethod pedagogy considers research as belonging to the multiple domains of learners, teachers, and teacher educators alike- These participants, engaged in the joint accomplish- ment of learning,/teaching operations, ought to be engaged in pedagogic exploration either individually or collaboratively. Such a formulation of pedagogic exploration opens up concerns about objectivity and generalizabiliq. Objectivity relares ro rhe concern that pedagogic explorers may not have adequate research skills and that therefore their research projects may not turn out to be reliable, valid, or generalizable. As Burton (1988) rightly points out, "rhe most carefully designed experiment reflects the bias and values of the experimenter. Sorneonehad to decide what questions to include and exclude on a survey or what variable to isolate and attend to during an experimental study" (p. 766). Research in social sciences and humanities can hardly be absolutely objective. In fact, philosophers of science such as Feyerabend (7975) would argue that there is no absolute objectivity even in scientific research. The question of generalizability becomes problematic only if it is approached in its traditional sense of a centralized pedagogic project having implications for a wider sphere of pedagogic activity. As a reviewer of this article pointed out, it is even inappropriate to talk about generalizability in the context of a postmethod pedagogy. Instead, the reviewer suggested the term particularizability because, in a postmethod pedagogy, any exploration is by definition context specific and has the capacity, if carried out properly, to produce situated scenarios that are ever-changing and ever-evolving. Besides, as Allwright (1993) maintains, a project that concentrates on locally important research questions can produce individual understandings, and there is "no reason in principle why individual understandings should be incapable of being brought together towards some sort of overall sprthesis" (p. 127). The difficult task facing pedagogic explorers is how to get ready for the kind of research they would like to engage in. All pedagogic explorers, like all informed and inquisitive human beings, do research in a casual way-observing what they do, reflecting on why they do what they do, monitoring its intended and unintended effects, and then modi$ring their behavior in light of lessons learned. This informal research ability has to be made into a more systematic and sustained activity. Evidently, pedagogic researchers can achieve this in at least two ways: by developing, either through a formal teacher education program TESOL QUARTERLY or through self-snrdr; tl research in general (r analysis in particular (se collaborating with senio the required skills on d A postmethod pedag an extraordinary degret larly the teacher and pedagogy will identifi' y PROBLEMATTZING In any educational re pivotal change agents. J to change, they have to r also their attitudes and change agents whosejol but to create the cond change, therefore, is ch According to Diamond form and reform their < 42), ar,d the primary ch; to see themselves capa eventually as sel F-directir of a postmethod pedal educators successfully m Such a demand raises I list below. These quer come up with, are indica innovation, more so of c tried sincerely, to tranr practice of teaching. o If a meaningful pos tation of pedagogic tive strategies be ir practitioners? o If pedagogic particul can postmethod prar the classroom and h . If context-sensitive p ers and their practic TOWARD A POSTMETHOD I
- 20. prolided rvith the tools necessary to construct such knorvledge, ,vhat exactly are the characteristics of such tools? . lf postmethod practitioners har,e to learn to cope u'ith comPeting pulls and pressures representins their professitlnal preparation, their personal bclief's, instittrtional constrair.rts, learner rleeds ancl wants, and so on, ho,t can appropriate cclpine stratesies be identified and made available to them? . I1'a pedagogv of possibility is collccrnecl u-ith postmethocl practitio- ners' sensitir,itv to the broader social, econontic, and political envi- ronlnent in rvhich they'rvork, to 'h?It extellt can teacher preparation prograrns create sttch a sensitivity among student tcachers? o If a pedagogl, of possibilitl is also concerned vnith the inclir,idual ar"rcl group identity of learners in the classroottt, {llat concrete stePs car} postmethod practitioners take to maintain such identitl' and at the same tinte promote the uroup cotrerence that is so r,ital for tl-re accornplishment of pcdagogic purposes? r If postnlethod lcarners have to be autonontous in thc- acadernic, social, and liberatory sense, hor, can thev be helped to nlaxinliz.c', monitclr, aud manage their autonom,v ftrr the individual as well as the collective goocl? r If a postmethod pedagog' requires that teachers be given a fair amount of frccdorn and fleribilitv to make their ou'n pedagogic dccisions, what specific clemands cloes such a requirernent make on inclividuals ancl institutions, and rvhat can be clone to help these individuals zrnd institutions meet the challeugc of changc? r If teacher research has to extencl its domain to include sociopolitical factors that shape classroom aims and actit'ities. what potential theoretical and practical problems are associat.ed with such a re- sr:arch agenda? r If postrnethod lcarners, teachers, ancl teacher educators all have ?rcti.e roles to plav in the irnplementation of a postmcthod pedagogli in r,vhat .avs can these participants c<tllaborate, and hou' can their differcntial and possiblv conflicting goals be reconciled lbr the henefit of all? o If postmethod pedagogp' requires meaninglul collaboration and coopc--ratiorl arnong learners, teachers, ancl teacher educators, horv can [,2 prol'essionals identifi' eaps anrl biases in thcir beliefs and assumptions, ancl in their intenticlns and interpretations, antl hrl'iv do rve rc--cluce those gaps and biases once thev are identified? Clcarll', these questions defi'simple ilns{ers. In fact, answers to queslions likc these rvili varr, I}om context to context and fiom tirne to tirne. In that sensc, a postmethod pedagogl'rvill alu,a-vs remain a nork in progress. TESOL OUARTERLY556 CONCLUSION AS i.IT A work in progress hardJ the true spirit of an open- reader with more food for t The greatest challenge tl on the professional commur the organizing principle fo education. The concept of I We as L2 professionals hare that that path is the onlv c concept of method nor' a concept itself. It has had a and function o[every conce curriculum design, syllabus r tional strategies, and testi pedestal constructed on the stood solidly for such a long its merit. In the search for an alte parameters of particularitr', consideration. I believe that the necessary conceptualiz educational, cultural, social. ing, teaching, and teacher that connects the roles of promising a relationship thi The choice of the pedago opens up unlimited oppor pedagogies that can tlrly se to serve. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank Carol Chapelle and d :ffi:l3 and suggestions. I at THE AUTHOR B. Kumaravadivelu is a professol University, where he teaches gr: sively on L2 learning, teaching, Language Journal ELT Journal I Language Learning. TOWARD A POSTMETHOD PED,
- 22. REFERENCES Alirvright, R. L. (1993). lntegrating "research" and "pedagogr"': Approprietc cliterie arrd practical problems. InJ. Eclge & K. Richarcls (Eds.), 'l-eru:lrct's dexelop teacher.s research (pp. 125-13,5). Londort: Heinemann. Auerbach, t. ltOOfy. The politics of the ESL .lassroonr: Issues of p,,$'er irt peciagogical choices. In J. Tollefson (Ec1.), I'ou,er and irtequality in langune'e education (pp. 9-33) . Nerv York: Ciambridge Universit) I'ress Baile1,, K. X,I., I Nunan, D. (Eds.). (1996). Vr,ir:esJron the d.assroom: QLm[itatixereseorclt i n l.a n. euage classrooms. Cambriclge : O:rmbrid gc L,iniversitr Press' Bakhtin, M. l,t. (lgal ). Ttw tlia.logit: itn,agination (c. Emerson & NI. Holqrdst. Trans.). Austin: Ur-riversily of Texas Press. Becker, A. (198t,). Language in par:ricular: A lecture. ln D. Tannen (Ed.), tjngrui.Vzrs in r:orttcxt: Connectirig obsentotiott and undrrstandins (pp. 17-35). Nonvood, NJ: Ahlex. Berresclr, S. (2001). Clritical English.fbr academic lntrltoses: Theory, politi,cs, ttntl prat:tit:e. {ahr,t'air, NJ: Erlbar.rm. Broadv, E., & Kenning, NI.(199ti). Learner autononrv: an introduction to lltc-- issues. In t. Br-oacl1,& NI. Kennins (Eds.), Promotin.g lcam.er t,utorLomlt in utt,hte:nity ktng'uage teadtirtg (pp. 1-21).l,onclon: centre for Infbrmation on l,anguage Teaching and Research. Rurton, F. R. (tg$8). Reflections on Stricklancl's "To1uard the Extenderl Proles- siorral." Langtctge Art.s, 6i, 765-768. Oameron, D., Frazir, E., Ifan'ev, P., Rampto,, M. B. H., & Richardsorl, K. (1993)' Research.in,g language: IssrLes of pozrtet and methttd. London: Routledg;er. Canagaraiatr, A. S. (1999). Resi,stin,g-linguistic impa'ialisnt in En,gl:lish teach,ing. Oxfcrrd: teachers know. In f iailet (pp. BB-l l5). NewYork G Freeman, D. (1998). Undzrstan Freeman, D., & Johnson, K- l Ianguage teacher educador Freeman, D., & Richards, J. C Cambridge: Cambridge Ln Giroux, H. A. (1988). Schoolin mod,etn aga. Minneapolis: L-r Hargreaves, A. (1994). Changit Press. Holec, H. (7988) Autonoms Strasbourg, France: Counci Johnson, K E. (Ed.). (2000). Kennedy, C. (1999). Introduct C. Goh (Eds.), Expbring ch Macmillan Heinemann. Kincheloe, J. L. (1993). Io-a postrnod,un. Westport, CT: B Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). T secoqd/foreign language tr Kumaravadivelu, B. (1999a). ( 33, 453-484. Kumaravadivelu, B. (199b). - crirical classroom obsenati, in language teachn education Kumaravadivelu, B., & Bean. mod,el. Paper presented at tI Norton. B. (2000). ldentig ant, Nunan, D. (Ed.). (1992). Co Cambridge University Pres Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996 Cambridge: Cambridge Un O'Hanlon, C. (1993). The im sional development. In J. dnelopment (pp. 243-255). Oxford, R. (1990). Language York: Newbury House/Har Pennycook, A. (7994). Tht c London: Longman. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguist Prabhu. N. S. (1990). There is Reid, |. (Ed.). (1998). Undns Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prenr Scharle, A., & Szabo, A. (2( autonoln). Cambridge: Cam Shamim, F. (1996). Learner r, H. Coleman (Ed.), Socictl Cambridge University Presr Simon, R. (1988). For a peda Victoria, Australia: Deakin TOWARD A POSTMETHOD PI Oxforcl Universi tl' I'ress. (ilrambc-rs, J. (l992). Iirn.piri.cist researth on teut:hing. Academic. Chirmot, A. LI-, Bcrnhardt, S., El-Dinar-v, A. 8., & sbategies handbook. Nerv Vrrk: Longmatr- Chir:k, K. (1996). Safe-taik: (lollusion in apartheid education. Socieg anrl the knrguage cktssrctrnn (pp. 2i-:i9). (larnbridge: In H. (lolcman (Ed.), Carnbridge Lf nive rsity Press. Clanclinin, D. J., Davies, A., Hogan, P., & Ketrnard, B. (1993). I'ertnting to teatJt' tea,thi,ng to learn. Neu'Y<rrk: Teachers College Press. Cllarke, N,f. A. (1994). The dysfirnctiors of the theon'/practice cliscourse. 7ES01- ()rLartcrll, 28, 9-26. clole.-man, il. (lsgtj). Autonomv and ideolog,v in the English laneuage classroom. Lr H. Coleman (Ect.), Sorlzfi antl tlrc lattgu,age tlr'r'ssroom. (pp. 1-16). Clarnbridee: Carnbridge Universin' Press. Diarnond, f;. f. p. (1993). In-sen,ice eclucatiot't as something more: A personal construct approach. In P. Ilahane1,., L. Perrv &.f..fanangelo (L,ds.), l'hcordiml a.nd critical pu.sftecti,"te.s on teal:her change (pp.45-66). Nonvood, NJ: Ablcr. _ Elliott,.J. i1991). Action re.searcJt fbr ed,ucational chun.ge. Buckingharn, Eng'1and: opcn Universitv Press. Elliott,J. (1993). Ret:onsh'ucting teo,chnr etLucation:'l'eacher tletelopntertt. London: Falmer Prcss. Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). LearnirLg to leant l)tglish: ,4 cottrse irt. Lettrurr ttainittt. Carnbridse: Cambridge Llniversigv Press. Feyerabend, P. (1971'r). Aga,inst rnetltod.. London: rerso Books. Frecman, D. (1996). Rede{ining the rclationship betrvecn rescarch and u,hat 558 TESOI, QUIRTERLY Dordreclit, Netherlands: Klu'tt'er Robbirrs,J. (1999). The k:atnin{!
- 24. Tickoo, M. L. (1996). Fonvard fi'om B:rngalore. In B. Kennr'& ,,,. Savage (Eds.), Language and deueloprrte'nl: l'eathers itt o chuLgrng zrorftl London: Longman. TolleIison, J. 1,1t. 1Ed.). (1995). Powo and ineq'ualitl in langrage erJ'uration. Cambridge: Clambriclse Universitl l'ess. ran Licr. L. 1l1t9ti.t. ltrlrrur'liun in r-rut.lLerLtit:i11. [.onr1on : Lon gman. van NIanen, NI. (1977). l.inkirrs Cutriculum lrLqui;ry. 6, 205-228. virn N{anen, N'1. (1991). The tact of teathins: The nearting o.f pedagogical thoughtfLtlness. Albanv: SLrte Llnir,ersitv of Nerv York Press. Ieeclon, C. (1987). fetnirtist prat:tie arul poststnrt:l.uruli.st. th,eory. l,ondon: Black'lr'ell. rencler-r, A. (1991). Lerntrct strategie,s for lcarne.r autottont. Net,Vrrk: Prentice Hall. 'oods, D. (1996). 'l'eacher rognition. i.n. lan.guage teat:hins. Carnbridge: Cambriclge Unir-ersitl'Press. Zeichner, K. (1996).'feachers as reflectir,e practitioners and the clernocratization of school reform. In K. Zeichner, S. N'Ielnick, & N{. L. Gomez (Erls.), (-iurrz:rzls of rejbttn in preseruice teaclrcr etlucution (pp. 199-214). Nervbrk: Teachers College Press. 560 TESOL OUARTERLY Speaking Pert' School Childrtthe langtage curiculum: Awareness, autonomry and ways of knowing with ways of being practical. I lr I MARY H. MAGUIRE ][cGill Urt.iuersity .futtlrvnl. Ou"l,c,. (,t, : ; . BARBARA GRA'ES Uniuersi.tt oJ Ottaua Ottaw a, Queb et:, C n t t tt tl t This article explores ttr identity construction tI writing. We adopt a con examine the discourse: girls as they learn Engl primary school in urbar intersects with identia way interplay among thr through their writing, a concept of sp eahing pnso biliteracy as socioculfil By focusing on construr reJlexiai$, we present a speaking personality at Writing slories is learn imagination. The more like speaking, the more (Heddie, age 9; intenir I would have them I after they could read, I then pick a little part o{ that's named Rosie and tJ-len they meet each ot t-hey have to use lheir i hcsc excerpts fiom c frame our explorati TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 35, No. 4, I