Counselling principles and types

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Counselling is called the crux, heart, essence, pivot or core
of all guidance programme. The proper functioning and
growth of the body depends upon the proper functioning of
the heart. Similarly, the success or failure of the guidance
programme is determined by counselling service. Some of
the definitions of counselling by various experts are the fol-
lowing—
1.Webster’s Dictionary—Consultation, mutual interchange
of opinion; deliberating together.
2.Strong—Face to face relationship in which growth takes
place in the counsellor as well as the counselee.
3.Robinson—The term counselling covers all types of two
person situations in which one person, the client is helped
to adjust more effectively to himself and his environment.
4.Wren—”Counselling is a personal and dynamic relation-
ship between two individuals— an older, more experienced
and wiser (counsellor) and a younger, less wise (counselee).
The latter has a problem for which he seeks the help of the
former. The two work together so that the problem may be
more clearly defined and the counselee may be helped to a
self-determined solution.
Thus, counselling is a process in which the pupil is ap-
proached on an individual level. He is helped in educational,
vocational or psychological field only at problem points. In
counselling the subject matter is pupil’s needs, abilities,
aims, aspirations, plans, decision, actions, and limitations.
It is a sort of specialised, personalised and individualised
service which makes effective use of information gathered
about any individual. This information leads to self-insight,
self-analysis and self-direction. This self-direction helps the
individual in making maximum educational, vocational and
psychological adjustment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING
From the above discussion, it is clear that the following are
major characteristics of counselling—
1.Counselling is a person to person relationship.
2.It involves two individuals—one seeking help and the other,
a professionally trained person, who can help the first.
3.The objective is to help the counsellor to discover and
solve his personal problems independently.
4.In order to help and assist properly, the counsellor must
establish a relationship of mutual respect, cooperation and
friendliness between the two individuals.
5.The counsellor discovers the problems of the client and
helps him to set up goals and guide him through difficulties
and problems.
6.In the whole of counselling process, the main emphasis
is on the counsellor’s self direction and self-acceptance.
7.Counselling is democratic. It sets up a democratic pat-
tern and allows the counselee to do freely whatever he likes
while with the consultant and not under the consultant.
DISTINCTION FROM RELATED CONCEPTS
Counselling differs from other related terms or activities as
follows—
1.Counsellinb
and Guidance—Counselling is a part of
guidance, not all of it. It is a specialised or individualised
part which deals with the individual at problem points. Thus
all counselling is guidance but all guidance is not counsel-
ling.
2.Counselling and Interview—While counselling is a part
of guidance, interview is only a technique used in the pro-
cess of counselling. Counselling is a wider and compre-
hensive term.
3.Counselling and advising—Counselling in not synony-
mous with giving advice. A wise counsellor never gives ad-
vice until it is absolutely essential. Counselling is a pro-
cess in which the counsellor assumes the responsibility
for the decisions that are made. In advising the counsellor
accepts the responsibility for the quality of the decisions
made. In counselling the counselee arrives at the decision
as a result of process and not because of the advice of the
counsellor.
4.Counselling and Teaching—Counselling is not teach-
ing. The following are some of the points of difference be-
tween counselling and teaching—
(i) Whereas counselling is one to one relationship, teach-
ing is done in group.
(ii)Whereas counsellor is concerned with social and emo-
tional problems, the teacher is concerned with academic
and intellectual problems.
(iii)Counsellors uses many techniques like diagnostic tools,
occupational information and several types of tests to un-
derstand the psychological make up of the counselee.
Teacher uses various techniques like lecturing and audiovi-
suals aids to make the teaching interesting and effective.
(iv)In counselling, the counsellor does not know the sub-
ject-matter of the counselling interview. On the other hand
in teaching, the teacher knows the subject-matter of teach-
ing.
(v)In counselling the most important techniques is inter-
view, but in teaching it is never used as a technique.
(vi)Counsellor increases information about self-occupation,
training institutions, colleges, apprenticeship-programmes,
etc. Teacher increases information of instructional activi-
ties.
5.Counselling and psychotherapy—Counselling is not
psychotherapy although it is used by psychotherapist as
one of the techniques of treatment. The following are some
of the points of difference between counselling and psycho-
therapy—
(i)Counsnelling is concerned mostly with normal individu-
als having normal anxieties whereas, psychotherapy is con-
cerned with individuals whose behaviours are neurotic.
(ii)Counsellor works in educational setting whereas, psy-
chotherapist works in medical setting.
(iii)Counsellor uses techniques and tools that can be used
in schools whereas, psychotherapist uses tools and tech-
niques that are applicable in any situation such as play-
therapy psychodrama, sociogram, etc.
(iv) In counselling, psychology is not only basis for study-
ing the individual. In psychotherapy, psychology is the only
basis of studying the individual.
(v)Counselling is broader in scope as it touches all the prob-
lems of the individual, but does not go deep in them. Psy-
chotherapy is deeper rather than broader in scope. It deals
with fewer problems but goes very deep in studying the
personality of individuals.
PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
1.Acceptance—All schools of guidance and counselling
agree that the client must be accepted as whole person,
as a human being.
2.Respect for the individual—All schools of guidance and
counselling attach importance to respect for individual.
3.Permissiveness—All schools of guidance and counsel-
ling accept relative permissiveness of counselling relation

11
UNIT—VI
CONCEPTANDPRINCIPLESOFGUIDANCEANDCOUN-
SELLING,
TYPES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF GUIDANCE—
RECORDS, SCALES AND TESTS,
TECHNIQUES,
INTERVIEWORGANIZINGGUIDANCESERVICESATDIF-
FERENT LEVELS OF EDUCATION,
OCCUPATIONALINFORMATION,
KINDS OF SERVICES, LIKE INFORMATION, TESTING,
COUNSELLING AND FOLLOW-UP
CONCEPT, PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF GUIDANCE
AND COUNSELLING
CONCEPTS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING.
In the words of Jones, “Guidance is the personal help that
is given by one person to another in developing life goals, in
making adjustment and in solving problems that confront
him in the attainment of goals.” In this manner guidance is
personal assistance. Although guidance is sometimes of-
fered at the group level, yet even in these matters every
member of the group is also individually given advice. Ap-
plied psychology is based on the conception of individual
difference. General experience and scientific research have
both established that every single individual has certain
abilities, problems and difficulties that are distinctly his own,
as distinct form those of others. Evidently, if any advice or
guidance is to be rendered, it must be rendered individually
and personally. This personal helps is forthcoming from one
individual to another. One of these two individuals is a psy-
chologists, or one who knows psychology and the other a
person who is in need of psychological guidance. Guid-
ance, then, is the help rendered to an individual by the
psychologists. In its more extensive sense, the term may
be taken to comprehend the advice rendered by any indi-
vidual who is in the know concerning psychology to an-
other who is in need of it. For example, if a father guides
his son in solving a problem, this too, amounts to guid-
ance, irrespective of the fact that it may or may not be
based on the most correct notion of psychological prin-
ciple. But this extensive meaning of the term is its general
meaning and implication. In a scientific analysis it is not
taken in its general meaning but reduced to more definite
and precise terms whereby its meaning becomes limited.
That is why it is first defined. Guidance, in psychology,
means a particular thing. It is the personal advice or ser-
vice rendered by a psychologist, and not by any Tom, Dick
and Harry, to another person. This guidance takes the form
of advice which helps the guided individual to adjust to vari-
ous conditions and circumstances. If one would only look
at it that way, it would become evident that adjustment is
the basic problems of human life. The person who fails to
adjust to his circumstances, becomes a failure, suffered
pain himself and inflicts it upon others, and is branded an
abnormal being. In this way, educational psychology, through
its helping the individual in adjusting himself, helps to spread
happiness, peace and organization in society. Problems in
human life do not come to an end, because new ones keep
on arising. There is no end to trouble. A child, for example,
is faced by very few problems, much of his anxiety being
centered around the work forced upon him by the teacher,
or the means of dealing with the more recalcitrant of his
friends and such minor things. He has not to worry about
keeping the hearth burning. But these are problems that
gradually engulf every individual as he grows older. As a
general rule, most people marry and have children who must
go to school and with equal inevitability fall ill and be treated
for it only to grow up, and get married themselves and keep
the almost eternal circle moving forward. Thus one trouble
grows out of another, and never lets the individual being sit
back contented and unhurried. Human psychology is much
like this. One desire arises and destroys the being’s peace
till it is satisfied. Hence, he immediately busies himself
in searching for the means to satisfy his desire and
CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING

10
used in both these senses. Education in both its forms is
essential for a total development of the individual. An indi-
vidual who is formally educated is not necessary totally
developed, but he is unquestionably better informed than
the average uneducated person. Besides, he develops the
ability to imbibe education, as it is meant in its more liberal
sense. Education of both kinds is, thus, essential.
MEANING OF EDUCATION IN THE WEST
Educational thinking, like every other branch of knowledge,
started in the philosophical deliberation of the ancient Greek
philosophers. Thus, the meaning of education in West is
initially available in the works of Plato. It is interesting to
note that thousands of years ago, Plato gave a meaning to
education which is even now followed in the West with slight
changes here and there. Plato defined education as a life
long process starting, “from the first years of childhood and
lasting to the very end of the life.” He used the term educa-
tion in a very wide sense, “which makes a man eagerly
pursue the ideal perfection of citizenship and teaches him
how rightly to rule and how to obey.” Education not only
provides knowledge and skills, but also inculcates values,
training of instincts, fostering right attitudes and habits. In
Republic, Plato points out, that “true education, whatever
that may be, will have the greatest tendency to civilise and
humanise them in their relation to one another and to those
who are under their protection.” This humanist definition of
education propounded by Plato is still the most widely ac-
cepted meaning of education in the West Education every-
where has been taken as a process of inculcating values.
As Plato said, “Now I mean by education that training which
is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in
children.” These views of Plato have been universally ac-
cepted in West as well as in the East. Education has been
defined differently by the idealists, the pragmatists, the
naturalists and the realist philosophers. However, its mean-
ing has been generally idealistic. Without some sort of ide-
alism, there can be no education worth the name. In the
words of Robert R. Rusk, “We may accept that the aim of
education is the enhancement or enrichment of personal-
ity, the differentiating feature of which is the embodiment of
universalvalues.”Thewesterneducationalphilosophershave
generally agreed that the growth of the human child is the
essence of education. In the words of A.G. Hughes, “The
essence of discipline is, thus, not forced subordination to
the will of the hated tyrants, but submission to the example
of admired superiors.” In the middle ages, Comenius de-
clared education to be a process whereby an individual
developed qualities relating to religion, knowledge and mo-
rality, and thereby established his claim to be called a hu-
man being. “The fundamental principles of education”, ac-
cording to Forebel, “instruction and teaching should be pas-
sive and protective not directive and interfering.” The prin-
ciple of liberty has found most eloquent expression in the
definition of education given by Rousseau when he said,
“Let us obey the call of Natue. We shall see that her yoke
is easy and that when we give heed to her voice, we find the
joy in the answer of a good conscience.” Others have laid
emphasis upon the social meaning of education whereby it
aims at making an individual fit in the society. It was in this
sense that Aldous Huxley said, “A perfect education is one
which trains up every human being to fit into the place he or
she is to occupy in the social hierarchy, but without, in the
process, destroying his or her individuality.”
All the foregoing definitions have stated that education is
the process of development. It, therefore, becomes neces-
sary to discover what is implied in this development. Al-
though the ability to learn depends upon development, but
development is not synonymous with education. Develop-
ment means the gradual and continuous progress of mind
and body. Through this development, the child acquires the
following elements—
1.Knowledge of the environment by which he is surrounded,
2.The necessary motor control to fulfil his individual needs,
3. Linguistic abilities to enable him to converse, and
4.Some knowledge of individual and collective relationships.
The development of all these elements begins at home it-
self. The educator’s task is to continue this process and to
encourage it while the child is at school.
In fact, this process of development continues right through
an individual’s life time. Consequently, it is accepted that
education in its general sense continues throughout a man’s
natural span of life. Even the successful teacher or educa-
tor himself remains a student throughout his life. On the
one hand, he teaches certain things to some people but at
the same time, he learns something from them. All suc-
cessful educators experience that the development under-
gone by their thoughts, personalities and abilities would
have impossible otherwise. In much the same way, people
other than the educators, teach and learn simultaneously.
MEANING OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
Learning to the Indian approach, it becomes necessary to
include the spiritual aspect also because it is accepted as
a part of the development by education. In fact, Indian think-
ers have placed special emphasis upon this. Yajnavalkya
opined that only that is education which gives a sterling
character to an individual and renders him useful for the
world. Shankaracharya said that education is that which
leads to salvation. Even the more recent educationists have
stressed the importance of the spiritual aspect. In the words
of A.S. Altekar, “Education has always been regarded in
India as a source of illumination and power which trans-
forms and ennobles our nature by the progressive and har-
monious development of our physical, mental, intellectual
and spiritual powers and faculties.”
This spiritual tradition has been carried on by contempo-
rary Indian philosophers of education in their integral ap-
proach , synthesis of idealism and pragmatism, rational-
ism and humanism, diversity in unity and harmony to the
individual and society. It was due to this emphasis on the
spiritual meaning of education that Vivekanand said, “Reli-
gion is the inner most core of education.” In the words of Sri
Aurobindo, “The child’s education ought to be an outbringing
of all that is best, most powerful, most intimate and living in
his nature, the mould into which the man’s action and de-
velopment ought to run is that of his innate quality and power.
He must acquire new things but he will acquire them best,
most wholly on the basis of his own developed type and
inborn force. “ M.K. Gandhi expressed the same idea when
he defined education by saying, “By education I mean an all-
around drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind
and spirit. Literacy is not the end of education not even the
beginning. It is one of the means whereby man and woman
can be educated. Literacy in itself is no education.”
SYNTHETIC DEFINITION
it is clear from the above discussion of the meaning of edu-
cation in West and India, ancient and modern that it may

9
EDUCATION
PAPER-III(A) [CORE GROUP]
UNIT—I
WESTERN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY:-
•IDEALISM,
REALISM,
NATURALISM,
PRAGMATISM,
EXISTENTIALISM;
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONCEPTS OF
KNOWLEDGE, REALITY AND VALUES; THEIR EDUCA-
TIONAL IMPLICATIONS FOR AIMS, CONTENTS AND
METHODS OF EDUCATION.
• INDIAN SCHOOLS’ OF PHILOSOPHY
(VEDANTA,BUDDHISM,JAINISM,ISLAMICTRADITIONS)
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONCEPTS OF
KNOWLEDGE, REALITY AND VALUES AND THEIR EDU-
CATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIAN THINKERS, LIKE
VIVEKANANDA,
TAGORE,
GANDHI AND
AUROBINDO
TO EDUCATIONAL THINKING.
PAPER-II
1.PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
• RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY
• WESTERN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY :
• IDEALISM, REALISM, NATURALISM, PRAGMATISM,
EXISTENTIALISM, MARXISM WITH SPECIAL REFER-
ENCE TO THE CONCEPTS OF KNOWLEDGE, REALITY
ANDVALUESTHEIREDUCATIONALIMPLICATIONSFOR
AIMS, CONTENTS AND METHODS OF EDUCATION.
• INDIAN SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY (SANKHYA,
VEDANTA, BUDDHISM, JAINISM, ISLAMIC TRADITIONS)
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONCEPT OF
KNOWLEDGE, REALITY AND VALUES AND THEIR EDU-
CATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
• CONTRIBUTIONS OF VIVEKANANDA, TAGORE,
GANDHIANDAUROBINDOTOEDUCATIONALTHINKING
• NATIONAL VALUES AS ENSHRINED IN THE INDIAN
CONSTITUTION AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICA-
TIONS
• MODERN CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY : ANALYSIS—
LOGICAL ANALYSIS,
• LOGICAL EMPIRICISM AND POSITIVE RELATIVISM—
(MORISS L. PRIGGE)
MEANING AND NATURE OF EDUCATION
Literal Meaning
ThewordeducationhasitsoriginintheLatinword‘educatum1
composed of two terms ‘E’ and ‘Duco’. ‘E’ implies a progress
from inward to outward, while ‘Duco’ means developing or
progressing. In its most literal sense, therefore, education
means becoming developed or progressing from inside to
outside. Education, thus, is the process of developing the
inner abilities and powers of an individual. The term is also
often connected with the Latin ‘edueare’, meaning a propul-
sion from the internal to the external. This Latin term means
to educate through a change brought about by practice or
usage. In this manner, education implies some kind of
change for the better in person.
GENERALMEANING
In general usage, the term education is used either in its
narrow sense or in its more liberal connotation. A slight
elaboration of these two senses is given here.
A large majority of people use the term to man the training
or studies undertaken for a few years in some educational
institutions. This is the restricted meaning of the term. It
implies education provided according to a fixed curriculum
by a particular set of people in a specific place. It does not
necessarily provide any real knowledge, since the individual
still has much to learn. The qualities an individual needs to
achieve success in practical life cannot be generated in
him by college education. This meaning of the term per-
tains to the most formal kind of education, in which an indi-
vidual pursues a course of study dictated by a standard
curriculum and at the end of a stipulated period, wins a
degree or diploma. This certificate enables him to get some
kind of job. In actual fact, an individual should not be con-
sidered educated merely because he possesses a degree,
while on the other hand, absence of such a degree should
not imply that the individual is uneducated. In every coun-
try, there are instances of great social reformers, saints,
philosophers and thinkers who have never been near an
institution of formal education. But can they be called un-
educated, on this ground?
When the word is accepted in its more liberal meaning, it is
granted that at all times and places, an individual is imbib-
ing some education. Education is thus not limited merely
to the classroom. It can be obtained from all kinds of social
institutions and associations such as the family. It is not
the prerogative of the teacher alone to provide education. It
can be obtained from all individuals even from Nature. Con-
sidered from this standpoint, it can be said that the child
gets education not only from his teacher but also from the
entire complexity of his environment, each object in which
is a means of educating him. It must be granted that, with
this definition, the subjects of education cannot be deter-
mined, for they are far too numerous. Education is there-
fore, also not limited to students but comprehends all hu-
man individuals, of all sex, ages, races and groups.
In this sense, education is informal. This aspect of educa-
tion has great importance. Such an education is not
planned or organised. The child learns many new and inter-
esting things from his parents, his play- mates, his
neighbours and other members of society. Many things he
can learn merely by observing others. It should not be con-
cluded from description that the restricted and the liberal,
or the formal and the informal implications of education are
mutually exclusive. In actual fact, the term education is

8
too many instances. Educational television (ETV) was the
first development. These telecasts usually complete with
commercial telecasting. Instructional television (ITV) is a
later development which is usually a closed circuit telecast.
The essential differences attending ETV and ITV should
generate a number of research questions. The telecasts
reach a captive audience and programming is structured
toward specific ends. They could range from concept
appropriateness to the implications of their use on teacher
and pupils behaviours.
Origin of Educational Technology
In spite of the psychological resistance and economic
difficulty, one thing is clear that technology is creeping into
our economic and productive spheres of life. Radio has gone
into villages, television to has come and industries are
demanding large number of persons trained for specific
technical jobs. Some of the industries have started their
own apprentice courses. These training establishments in
industries which are not only familiar with industrial
technology but also have arisen from its demand are trying
to adopt new educational technology in their training
systems.
Before the sixties, the term ‘educational technology ‘was
largely associated with audio-visual aids and teaching
materials to classroom instruction. For most of the teachers
and teacher-educators, by and large, the term conveyed a
meaning of technology in education. The articles of Stanley
Edward started creating interest in programmed learning.
B.F. Skinner and S. Edwards emphasized the practical
utility of programmed learning. Gradually the concept of
technology of education has emerged in the field of
education.
Thus, the concept of ‘educational technology’ has developed
during last few years. It is a new area in the discipline of
education like : educational psychology, educational
philosophy, educational measurement and evaluation. It
makes a functional analysis of teaching learning process
and located the various components that operate from the
stage of input to that of the output Recently, National Council
of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) realized its
importance in the area of education and has established a
Centre of Educational Technology (GET).
The scientific inventions have influenced every aspect of
human life even our Htchen has been mechanised. This is
why our education process could not remain untouched by
these, computer and language laboratory are now being
used frequently in our teaching process. These machines
are employed in all the phases of human knowledge :
preservation, transmission, and advancement. A large
number of students sitting at a distant places tan be benefited
by an effective teacher by using radio and television in the
teaching process. This mechanization of teaching process
has emerged new area of educational technology in
education.
Meaning of Educational Technology
Educational Technology can be conceived as a science of
techniques and methods by which educational goals can
be realized. It is not primarily concerned with the task of
prescribing the goals. Although, it does help in specifying
the goals and translating them into behavioural terms. It is
not one particular method of achieving educational goals
like that of Montessori or strategy of developing self
instructional material, propounded by B.R Skinner. It is on
the other hand a science, on the basis of which various
strategies and tactics could be designed for the realisation
of specified goals.
The process of teaching then, in this frame of reference,
involves arranging for the inputs and designing of situation
or process through which a student learns to perform in a
desired or specified manner.
The desirability of certain performance may be prescribed
by social, political, philosophers, legislators and other
leaders of the society who take comprehensive view of the
nation and society in prescribing the goals for education.
The educational technology comes to see whether by a
given process or situation the specified goals could be
achieved, and if so to what extent, and if not what changes
are to be made in process so as to achieve the specified
goals? In this regard ‘Educational Technology’ involves four’
steps:
1. The first step is to make a functional analysis of the
teaching Teaming process to identify the various
components that operate from the stage of input to that
of output
2. The second step is to observe the effect of manipulating
the various components.
3. The third step is to observe the effect of manipulating
the various components and their functions in the field.
4. The fourth step is to translate all these research findings
into some kind of guideline for the practitioner.
Second Meaning of Educational Technology
The second meaning of educational technology is the
mechanization of educational process. The mechanization
is being done in all the three phases of human knowledge
very rapidly :
(1) Preservation of Knowledge, (2) Transmission of
Knowledge, and (3) Advancement of Knowledge.
The first phase of human knowledge is to preserve it. Prior
to printing machines, most of the knowledge was memorized
orally and transmitted by teachers to their students. But
now the knowledge is being preserved in books by the use
of printing machines. An effective teacher can be preserved
as a whole (voice, expression, actions and content by the
use of tape recorder, videotape, film etc.) In this way
educational technology is the extension of a teacher. The
future generation can see and hear to an eminent teacher
even after his death with the help of these machines.
The second phase of human knowledge is to transmit the
knowledge to new generation. A limited number of students
can be benefited by the classroom teaching, but a large
number of students sitting at far distant places can be taught
with the help of radio and television. In this way educational
technology has reversed the process of teaching. With the
introduction of Educational technology, the teacher has
started to knock the door of students. It is generally said
that the educational technology knocks at the doors. The
open university, correspondence education, distance
education and continuing education are the major
contributions of the innovation.
The third phase of human knowledge is to advance the
knowledge. The function of research process is to advance
new knowledge. The scientific are a based on the collection
and analysis of data. The computer services are employed
in analysing the data. The computer and electronic
machines yield more dependable results. Thus, the
education process is being mechanized and this aspect of

7
ELECTIVE—III
MEANINGANDSCOPEOFEDUCATIONALTECHNOLOGY
—EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AS SYSTEMS AP-
PROACH TO EDUCATION
—SYSTEMS APPROACH IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOL-
OGY AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
—COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY,
SOFTWARE, HARDWARE MULTI-MEDIA APPROACH IN
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
MODEIITIES OF TEACHING—
DIFFERENCEBETWEENTEACHINGANDINSTRUCTION,
CONDITIONINGANDTRAINING
STAGES OF TEACHING—PRE-ACTIVE, INTERACTIVE
AND POST-ACTIVE
TEACHING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS—
MEMORY, UNDERSTANDING AND REFLECTIVE MODI-
FICATION OF TEACHING BEHAVIOUR :
MICROTEACHING, FLANDER’S INTERACTION ANALY-
SIS, SIMULATION PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION (ORI-
GIN,TYPES,LINEARANDBRANCHING,DEVELOPMENT
OFPROGRAMMEDINSTRUCTIONMATERIAL—LINEAR/
BRANCHING MODEL, TEACHING MACHINES, COM-
PUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION MODELS OF TEACH-
ING :
CONCEPT, DIFFERENT FAMILIES OF TEACHING MOD-
ELS DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM
—FORMULATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
—TASK ANALYSIS
—DESIGNINGOFINSTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIES,SUCH
AS LECTURE, TEAM TEACHING, DISCUSSION, PANEL
DISCUSSION, SEMINARS AND TUTORIALS COMMUNI-
CATION PROCESS :
CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION, PRINCIPLES, MODES
AND BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION, CLASSROOM
COMMUNICATION (INTERACTION VERBAL AND NON-
VERBAL)
DISTANCE EDUCATION
CONCEPT, DIFFERENT CONTEMPORARY SYSTEM,
VIZ., CORRESPONDENCE, DISTANCE AND OPEN;
STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES;
EVALUATION STRATEGIES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION;
COUNSELLING METHODS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
DEVELOPMENT OFEVALUATIONTOOLS—NORM-REF-
ERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
EDUCATIONALTECHNOLOGY
(MEANING, TYPES SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE)
With recent development and advances, technology in
education is virtually a new source of concern for educators,
teachers and students. As with the rapid developing area,
there are problems- both internal and external ones- to be
confronted and resolved.
Technology is being successfully utilised in resolving many
of our problems : hence its success is generalized to the
teaching-learning situations. Boguslaw assumes a stance
of alarm in his study of cybernetic systems design and
social change. With technology in other fields develops
pressures for school personnel to accept technology by
acquiescence of the new technologies is based on advocacy
to a greater extent than it is based on supporting evidence.
Thelen asserts that change goes through three distinct
phases in education :
(1) enthusiasm
(2) vulgarization and spread and
(3) institutionalization. These may be applied to education
technology in this manner :-
(1) Enthusiasm, where by each tool or technology is
introduced with boisterous excitement by the advocates;
(2) Vulgarization and spread, which is a period of
rationalization used to install the technology in the classroom
as a do-it-yourself innovation and finally;
(3) Institutionalization sets in; that is, traditional practices
have been redefined to make them fit the rubrics of the
innovation.
Meaning and Definition of Technology-
HJ. Leavit defines technology as problem solving
inventions. The development of technology is essentially
related to attempts to be rationale and to effect greater
efficiency. Me Grath has expanded the definition to include
methods and strategies of teaching. Tools, mechanical and
electronic devices and instruments, media equipment,
library inventories and even text books.
Technology is a means components ; however observation
of practice and other evidence lead to the conclusion that
frequently the advocates and the users tend to view them
as ends.
It is possible to classify technology for education into two
categories :
(1) systemic programmes and
(2) support/transport items. A systemic programme is
conceived as a complete package or programme structured
toward an end (a single text book or a CAI programme).
Support/transport items consist of technologies of support,
such as projectors transparencies or film and transport in
including CCTV (closed circuit television), ITU (instructional
television) and language laboratory. The computer alone is
support/transport item. Further thecomputer can be used
as a tool to generate an evaluation of the mentioned
systemic programme.
One of the most complex and difficult tasks in education is
the designing of the programmes. Our eagerness is to adapt
to this newly advocated technology, we have not rationally
and objectively sorted out the concepts and knowledge-
base items which lend themselves to computer programmes
in teaching machines.
A similar but more common situation attends the use of
television in education. Advocacy and the apparent use of
it for the sake of use described even current practice in for

6
to home, school, emotion, etc. each of which requires a
separate measurement and any attempt to measure them
together may create difficulty. Here the investigator can,
however the attributes with more sophisticated instruments
specially designed for the purpose.
3.Numerals are used to represent quantities of the at-
tribute—The process of measurement involves the process
of quantification. Quantification indicates how much or to
what extent that particular attribute is present in a particu-
lar object. For example, when the investigator is measuring
the achievement of a child in arithmetic, he quantities it by
saying that the child has an 80 per cent mark in his class.
This percentage indicates how much of arithmetical knowl-
edge he has gained in the class.
Concept of Evaluation Definition
1.By evaluation is meant appraisal or assessment with re-
spect to some standard. Tuckman (1975) defines evalua-
tion as, “a process where in the parts, processes, or out-
comes of a programme are examined to see whether they
are satisfactory, particularly with reference to the
programmes stated objectives our own expectations or our
own standards of excellence. “Thus, evaluation involves a
process of appraisal of an object or event with reference to
some standard. The standard may be social, cultural or
scientific. The standard may also be true or arbitrary. An
investigator may measure the height of a child (which say,
is 30°) and type him as short. A typist typing 80 words per
minute may be described as a ‘Grade A’ typist. Description
of the height of he child (which is 30 ° ) and the typing
speed of the typist (which is 80 words per minute) are ex-
amples of measurement. However, when the child is said
to be short or the typist is classified as a ‘Grade A’ typist,
it means the performances of the typist and the height of a
child are being compared with reference to some standard.
A child is short because he is shorter than the general
mean height of children of his age group and the typist is a
‘Grade A’ typist because his speed is faster than the aver-
age speed of most the typists. Thus, the height of the child
and the typing behaviour of the typist are being evaluated
and not being measured.”
2.In the words of Kothari Commission, “Evaluation is a con-
tinuous process, forms an integral part of the total system
of education and is intimately related to educational objec-
tives. It exercise a great influence of the pupil’s study hab-
its and the teacher’s methods of instruction and thus helps
not only to measure educational achievements but also to
improve it. The techniques of evaluation are means of col-
lecting evidence about the students development in desir-
able directions.”
Evaluation is an all exclusive and a global process in which
data is collected from different persons at different times,
from different sources using different techniques. The vari-
ety of information, sources and techniques makes the pro-
cess of evaluation more comprehensive. It covers the total
personality of the students his cognitive, affective and psy-
chomotor aspects and not only a few selected aspects of
personality.
3.Sponsored by UNESCO in 1972 International Commis-
sion on Education stated that, “Real evaluation of a pupil’s
achievement should be based not on a single, summary
examination, but on over-all observation of his work through-
out a course of study. It should pay less attention to the
volume of memorized knowledge and more to the develop-
ment of his intellectual capacity, reasoning ability, critical
judgement and proficiency in problem-solving.”
Evaluation is a social and psychological process used in
every field of life day by day. An individual evaluated the
behaviours of other individuals. He also evaluated his own
actions at regular intervals. A gardener evaluates his plants
considering their beauty. A doctor evaluate his medicines
by observing the behavioural changes in the patients. As a
gardener and a doctor and other individuals evaluate their
respective actions according to their results, similarly a
teacher also evaluates his teaching on the basis of the
behavioural changes occurred in the pupils. In the field of
education, evaluation is linked with the learning objectives.
Therefore, while evaluating his teaching, every teacher ob-
serveswhetherthebehaviouralchangeswhichhaveoccurred
in the pupils are with reference to the pre-determined learn-
ing objectives. The teaching and testing going on side by
side according to learning objectives is known as evalua-
tion.
CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF EVALUATION
1.Comprehensive Process—Evaluation is a comprehen-
sive process. In it, not only cognitive aspect is evaluated as
is done in essay type examination, it also evaluated the
changes which occur in affective and conative aspects. It
includes, all the chances which occur in all the aspects
such as the physical, mental, social and moral aspects.
Hence, evaluation is a comprehensive method to test the
pupils. It includes both measurement and evaluation.
2.Continuous Process—Evaluation is a continuous pro-
cess closely related to the learning objectives. The desir-
able learning experiences are created in the pupil in accor-
dance with educational objectives and the behavioural
changes which occur day-to-day are recorded. On the ba-
sis of this record, the ranking of pupils is made and they
are upgraded to the next higher class.
3.Social Process—Evaluation is a social process. In this
where all the aspects of personality are evaluated, it is also
evaluated whether the teaching has been conducted ac-
cording to the needs, ideals and norms of the society or
not.
4.DescriptiveProcess—Evaluationisadescriptiveprocess.
In this is given the progress which occurs in all the aspects
of the pupils.
5.Cooperative process—Evaluation is a cooperative pro-
cess. The source of pupil’s promotion is the pupil himself.
As he writes in his answer books, so he gets the marks. In
evaluation, the necessary material is collected by seeking
essential cooperation of all the sources like teacher, pupils
and parents. Then his progress is evaluated.
6.Decisive Process—Evaluation is a decisive process. Af-
ter this, it is decided that—
(i) whether any object or process is useful or not,
(ii) to what extent the teaching is successful according to
the determined educational objectives,
(iii) whether the learning experiences provided to the pupils
in the class are effective or not,
(iv)How fair the teaching objectives have been achieved. If
not achieved then whether the remedial instruction should
be given or the teaching strategies are to be modified. Thus,
evaluation measures the educational achievements. It also
improves the teaching process.
STEPS IN EVALUATION
Evaluation is a continuous process with the following steps:

5
ELECTIVE—II
EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
CONCEPT, SCOPE, NEED AND RELEVANCE
TOOLS OF MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION SUB-
JECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE TOOLS, ESSAY TEST, OB-
JECTIVE TEST, SCALES, QUESTIONNAIRES, SCHED-
ULES, INVENTORIES, PERFORMANCE TESTS.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD MEASURING INSTRU-
MENT :
VALIDITY
RELIABILITY
NORMS
USABILITY, ETC.
TEST STANDARDIZATION:-
NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED
TESTS,SCALING-STANDARDSCORES,T-SCORESAND
C-SCORES
STEPS IN THE STANDARDIZATION OF A TEST
MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT, APTITUDES, IN-
TELLIGENCE, ATTITUDES, INTERESTS AND SKILLS
INTERPRETATION OF TEST-SCORES AND METHODS
OF FEEDBACK TO STUDENTS NEW TRENDS :
GRADING, SEMESTER, CONTINUOUS INTERNAL AS-
SESSMENT, QUESTION BANK, USES — OF COM-
PUTER IN EVALUATION, QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
Concept of Measurement
Measurement is a process by which the developed abilities
of the pupils are expressed in the quantitative form. The
measurement is directly concerned with quantity. By mea-
suring the content, skill and the results of abilities are ex-
pressed in numbers, scores, percentage and average, so
that the provision of education of the pupils may be made
according to their present achievement. By measurement,
the variables, groups, capacities, time and distance etc.
can be tested very conveniently. In short, according to
Campbell, “Measurement is the assignment of numerals to
objects or events according to rules.”
DEFINITION OF MEASUREMENT
1.J.P. Guilford—”Measurement means the description of
data in terms of numbers and this, in turn, means taking
advantage of the many benefits that operate with numbers
and mathematical thinking provide.”
2.Campbell—measurement is “assignment of numerals to
objects or events according to certain rules is called mea-
surement.”
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
The term “measurement” and “evaluation” are often used
interchangeably. However, in psychological, sociological and
educational researches, these two terms connote two dif-
ferent meanings. “Measurement”refers to the process of
assigning numerals to events, objects, etc. according to
certain rules.
3.Tyler—He defined Measurement “as assignment of nu-
merals, according to rules.”
4.Nunnally—”Measurement consists of rules for assign-
ing numbers to objects in such a way as to represent quan-
tities of attributes.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT
1.Numbers are assigned according to some rules—A
number is kind of numeral which is assigned some quanti-
tative meaning. In measurement the investigator does not
assign numbers of his own choice, but according to certain
fixed and explicit rules. Usually, such rules are of two types.
One is where the procedure is obvious and explicit. For
example, while measuring the length of cloth in feet and
inches, rules for assigning numerals are very explicit and
clear. But suppose one wants to measure the extroversion
trait of personality or the intelligence of a child. In such a
situation the rules would not be as clear as in the first ex-
ample. The rules are generally vague and less explicit for
measuring psychological, sociological and educational at-
tributes.
2.Concerned with certain attributes, or variables or
feature of an object—These attributes or features of the
object are measured and not the object itself. For example,
one would measure the aptitude, intelligence, attitude etc.
of a person and not the person himself. When an investiga-
tor is measuring the attribute of a person, he is faced with
two difficulties. First, he may be asked to measure an at-
tribute the existence of which is doubtful. Extra sensory
perception is one such example. Most investigators have
failed to show such perception in many individuals. Here,
measurement is not difficult but rather an impossible task.
Second, the investigator may be asked to measure attributes
with are not unitary but rather a mixture of several sub at-
tributes. Usually, this happens when one is asked to mea-
sure “Personality adjustment”. Adjustment may relate

4
diversified and made multipurpose in the light of facts and
figures, otherwise a situation already desperate will soon
become a hopeless one. Today we have men without jobs
and jobs without men. A very large proportion of the annual
output of our colleges and universities are not only
unemployed but unemployable. There must be something
very wrong in our educational system which has resulted in
such a tragic situation.
To be forewarned is to be forearmed. The State governments
and the Central government have the all-important duty of
planning ahead the education and the employment of Indian
youth. Our educational system should become employment-
oriented. It is time that this was done in right earnest. The
alternative is disaster.
A policy of drift spells danger. Education should be so
planned that everyone after completing education becomes
eligible for a job, and finds a job. Something on the lines of
the New Deal of President Roosevelt in the U. S. A. in 1930
is urgently called for. Our rulers should create jobs, and our
education system must fit our youth for these jobs.
It may seem rather odd to say so but it is nevertheless true
that a love of knowledge for its own sake and the desire to
improve the mind and to build character are closely bound
up with economic security. The academic life cannot be
expected to be so unworldly as to disregard the compelling
considerations of economic well-being. Let our society, our
educational system and our governments in the State and
at the Centre do the needful towards the hungry or hunger-
fearing and angry generations of Indian youth.
EDUCATION IN POST-INDEPENDENCE INDIA
We cannot imagine a progressive and democratic country
in modern times without its citizens being properly
educated. Agriculture, industries, big and small, arts and
crafts, even menial work and domestic service require
educated people for their efficient running. Our foreign rulers
did not educate the whole of India. The masses were kept
illiterate deliberately.
India having become independent, it was felt that our
manpower could not be put to the best use unless it was a
trained and educated man-power. In every Five-Year Plan
provision was made for the spread of literacy. Many new
universities, colleges and schools have been opened during
these several years. The percentage of literacy has nearly
doubled during this period. Even in the face of the danger
from external aggression, our Prime Minister declared that
education should not suffer as a result of economy
measures. Much has still to be done. We cannot rest till
every Indian can read and write well.
Many science institutes or research laboratories have been
opened. Engineering and medical colleges are multiplying
side by side with primary and secondary schools.
Agricultural universities and colleges are being opened in
increasing numbers. Education expansion has also taken
into account the question of adult education. Labour
organization and village Panchayats are having libraries of
their own for the use of labourers and farmers. Even jails
are having libraries of their own for the mental improvement
of the prisoners.
The State Governments and the Central Government are
giving every aid and encouragement to the production of
suitable books for general use. The Bharat Sevak Samaj is
also making efforts to spread education. Our progress in
education is certainly not too slow, but it is also not as one
would desire. With more funds available for the purpose in
the successive Five-Year Plans the progress is bound to
be quicker. It is our sacred duty to see to it that the lamp of
knowledge is lighted in every cottage and in every home.
THE FUTURE OF ENGLISH IN INDIA
Even when India was under British rule, and even today
when India is free, English was not and is not the language
of the common people of India. It was and still is used for
special purposes. Let us enumerate some of them.
Arguments in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts of
India still have to be presented in English. This is so because
for lawyers and judges from all over India with different
mother tongues, English alone can serve as a link language.
The majority of the members of the Lok Sabha are from the
non-Hindi speaking regions, and also members of the
Central Secretariat and other Central services. The same
is true of our ambassadors and other members of our
embassies, of our army, our air force, our navy, of our
research institutes and of our various other institutions. For
them all English serves as a link language.
In our universities there are teachers and students from all
over India. The regional language may be the educational
medium but it is equally necessary to have sections where
the educational medium is English. And last but not least
is the fact that books in Indian languages on hundreds of
important branches and sub- branches of knowledge are
not available.
For the purposes mentioned above and for about five per
cent of our people English is indispensable. It is wishful
thinking to say that English has no future in India. To think in
terms of English or no English is unrealistic. We should not
be guilty of oversimplification of complex issues. Our mother
tongues will not lose but will gain if our highly educated
classes have their minds enriched and strengthened with
the knowledge of English. Out of this class will come the
future makers and creators of great literature in the Indian
languages. For literature begets literature.
TIME FOR SOUND EDUCATION POLICY
NOTED Jurist, Dr. L.M. Singhvi ;has said, a sound
educational policy and its purposeful and dynamic
implementation has become a long overdue precondition
for sustained economic and moral reforms. “If the country
is still serious in liberating itself from the shackles of penury
and privation, and the deadwood of inertia and dead habit,
let us not talk glibly of educational reforms any longer”.
Delivering the 72nd Convocation Address of the Delhi
University, Dr. Singhvi stated that educational reforms were
not optional any more, and argued that only by resuscitating
education from the limbo of history, can we achieve socially
just democratic participation and qualitative excellence,
besides becoming more creative and organised. He also
added that education must imbue a student with flexibility
and versatility, so that he starts respecting value-relationship,
and shapes into an open-minded personality imbued with
the zeal to serve the nation and the world selflessly.
More than 40,000 students were admitted to various
degrees, on the basis of 1994 examinations, at the annual
convocation, with 2% of them being awarded Ph.Ds.
Besides, 172 medals and prizes were given away—80 to
male students and 92 to female students. The convocation

3
EDUCATION - ESSAYS
RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF A STUDENT
There are no rights without corresponding duties and no
duties without corresponding rights. The condition of the
whole society is reflected in the condition of its students. If
society, including the government, does not safeguard the
rights of the people, it will be nearly impossible for the people
to do their duty. A healthy and progressive social
organization alone can create a healthy and progressive
people. Let us apply these principles to the students who
are the most precious charge and the greatest responsibility
of society.
A hungry man cannot work properly, so a hungry student
cannot learn or study properly. Among the first rights of a
student are food, clothing and shelter. The home and the
neighbourhood should not have a vulgarizing and debasing
effect on the budding life of students. It is the right of students
to expect and receive love and kindness and understanding.
Teachers who know their job, courses of study suitable to
the ages and temperaments of students, proper balance
between work and play, sensible exercise and assertion of
authority combined with sympathy and helpfulness on the
part of teachers and elders, are among the just requirements
and rights of students. Again, students would make mistakes
almost as a matter of right.
What are the corresponding duties of students? To be
obedient and respectful to their elders and teachers, to be
keen and eager to learn, to work honestly, to speak and
write clearly and correctly, to be truthful, honest and straight
forward, to be lively and happy, to learn self-control, to guard
against the formation of bad habits, are among the duties
of students. To shun disorderliness and slovenliness, to
cultivate good manners and decorum are also in the list of
students’ duties. It should be remembered by students that
discipline and good behaviour are great fun and not tedious
tasks. Love of knowledge and the adventure of the mind
should go side by side with the culture of the emotions. It is
necessary to feed the head as well as to feed the heart.
The spirit of sportsmanship, love of fairness, dislike of
injustice, patience and moderation, loving studies and not
carrying on studies as an unwanted task are also among
the duties and responsibilities of students.
Above all, let students not only do their duty but love and
enjoy the work they are to perform. If they do so they will
not only become good students but happy students.
WHAT IS WRONG WITH OUR EDUCATION ?
What is wrong with our education? Quite a number of things.
Our education has fallen into a vicious circle. The education,
or the teaching or the training from the primary to the
university stage is so poor that the products of our
educational institutions are unfit to work at any job. Even
our graduates with a few exceptions are unable to write a
few paragraphs correctly either in English or in their mother-
tongue. Syntax and sentence-making and the art of
composition are woefully neglected at all stages. As a result
education not only in language but in all subjects has
become a farce and a mockery. Correct and intelligible
writing is an indispensable need in all subjects. The
sentences written by our students make no sense in the
majority of cases. This is vicious circle number one.
The vast majority of teachers from the primary stage to the
university stage are unfit or nearly unfit to teach. Our system
of education is neither producing nor employing good
teachers. This is vicious circle number two.
In an overwhelming number of cases the teachers are very
poorly paid. Their services and prospects are in most cases
subject to the whims of semi-literate school and college
managers. Their heart is not and cannot be in their work.
This is vicious circle number three.
Love of knowledge for its own sake is an admirable
sentiment. But when after spending the golden years of
boyhood and youth and thousands of rupees, hundreds of
thousands of our young people find themselves without jobs,
they curse their education and they curse the government.
Not only are there no jobs for them; in many cases they
find that they are not fit for any job. We have thus a very
sorry spectacle of men without jobs and jobs without men.
These are the vicious circles number four and five.
The prescribed books from the primary stage to the
secondary stage generally, but specially in language and
literature, are so poorly written that they render the minds
of the young students blunt and dull. Our educational
institutions are mostly producing literate illiterates. They
are sending out dumb and language less people. Every
department, every office, police service, civil service, clerical
services, all classes of schools and colleges suffer
grievously because they are being largely if not entirely
manned by these literate illiterates. This is vicious circle
number six, from which not only our education but every
department of our life has been suffering.
High-powered bodies are appointed from time to time to
make searching enquiries into the state of our education.
This is only a ceremony. The reports of such committees
are treated by the powers that be with respectful inattention.
Nothing is done. Nobody cares.
Indiscipline, using unfair means at the examinations,
vulgarity and filthy language, crime and violence have
become a familiar feature of student life all over the country.
Vicious circle number seven.
To crown it all political parties have taken to fishing in the
troubled waters of school and college life, doing incalculable
harm to the cause of education. Vicious circle number eight.
Indian education sorely requires complete overhauling.
Education is a sacred trust of the government. The education
minister in every State should be a seasoned educationist.
And he should be a non-party man. The educational budget
should be quadrupled. Indiscriminate opening of schools and
colleges should be stopped. Private and aided institutions
should become government institutions. Proper training and
employment should be provided for. All civilized countries
are doing this. And this must be done by India as well.
OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
More than ninety-nine per cent students in the high school
and university classes have as their aim the securing of
some job with adequate pay or emoluments. Only about
one per cent look forward to taking up independent
professions, such as trade or law or medicine. Year after
year our universities and degree colleges send out lakhs of
graduates as job-seekers. Of this large number perhaps
less than one-third can be absorbed in the various services.
The rest are doomed to remain jobless and unemployed.
This state of affairs has brought matters to such a pass
that our educational institutions, our society and our
government are faced with the revolt of the youth.
Our educational system should be overhauled. It should be

2
performance and the ranking assigned to compared
performances.
Achievement Test. Refers to test designed to measure
the effects of specific teaching or training in an area of
the curriculum.
Achromatism. Refers to extremely rare condition of total
colour blindness or the inability to distinguish colours.
Acoumeter. It is a device used to test hearing by marking
clicking or other sounds at prescribed distances from
the subject.
Acoustic Method.It is a method used to teach the deaf to
hear and speak by developing their sensitivity to sound
vibrations.
Acoustics.Science of sound.
Acrostic. A system which helps individuals to recall a
sequence or a rule by remembering a word or phrase.
Action on Smoking and Health (ASH) (UK). A pressure
group which seeks to inform people, particularly school
children, of the danger to health which results from
smoking.
Active Responding.Refers to frequently observing student
responses during an instructional sequence.
Active Variable. It is variable that can be changed or
manipulated by an educational researcher.
Activity Curriculum.Curriculum wherein the interests and
purposes of children determine the educational
programme of activities being planned cooperatively by
teacher and pupils.
Activity Learning/Teaching. It is a learning or teaching
situation, such project work, that is characterized by
participation on the part of the learner.
AD.Average deviation.
ADA. Average daily attendance.
Adaptability Test. Test of specific or general ability used
to predict performance in a wide range of occupations.
Adapted Physical Education.Regular physical education
programmes designed for handicapped children.
Adaptive Programme. Flexible form of programmed
instruction wherein the sequence of frames presented
changed so as to suit the pace and difficulty experienced
by individual students.
Adjunctive Programmes. Questions presented to
trainees/student after they have studied instructional
material or conventional text books.
Adjunct Professor. (US) college/university professor
employed on a part-time or contract basis.
Adjustment.Refers to process of adapting behaviour to a
changed environment.
Adjustment to Teaching. Process that occurs in the
probationer teacher who successfully adapts to the role
of professional teacher from the role of student teacher.
Administrative Studies (or Science). It is a branch of
educational management with special reference to the
organisation of educational institutions and systems.
Administrator. Refers to a person with administrative
responsibilities e.g. bursar.
Admission Criteria.Refers to rules laid down for student
selection.
Adolescent Crisis.Refers to problem of adjustment due to
conflicting influences that young people encounter both
within themselves and in the outside world.
Adolescent Literature. Refers to the reading material
written mainly for, or read by, young people.
Adolescent Theory. It is the part of psychological theory
that deals with adolescent growth and development.
Adolescent Unit. Institution for mentally handicapped
adolescents that is intermediary between special school
and adult training centre.
Adult Education.Education provided for adult for general
educational, rather than vocational purposes.
Advanced, Reading or Accelerated Reading. Refers to
exercises designed to increase reading speed without
loss of comprehension.
Advance Organizers. Refers to short introductory texts
presented to a student at the commencement of course
to enable him to structure the course material and put it
in perspective.
Adviser (US). Refers to a member of the academic staff
who advises students about the selection of courses to
be taken.
Advisory Centre for Education (ACE) (UK). It is an
independent, nonprofit making educational body that
publishes the journal ‘Where’ and operates are search
and enquiry service, providing parents and other laymen
with an information service on all aspects of education.
Aectiology. Means examination of the origins and
derivations of psychological and social states.
Affection. Refers to the emotional, feeling aspects of
experience and behaviour.
Affective.Refers to certain aspects of growth or educational
experience that deal with emotional development.
Affective Behaviour. Behaviour from which is inferred an
individual’s disposition to feel or to adopt an attitude to
a value.
Affective Education. Teaching or learning experience that
have the development of the feeling or emotional aspects
of behaviour in the pupils as their focal interest.
Affiliation Needs. Refers to the need for acceptance by
one’s peers.
Affirmative Action.It is positive action taken to overcome
under-representation of women and minority groups in
employment and student bodies, in comparison with the
composition of the area population.
African Training and Research Centre in
Administration for Development.(Centre African de
formation et de recherches administratives pour le
development) Establishment 1964 by agreement
between Morocco and UNESCO for the training of African
civil servants and research into problems of
administration. It has some 20 member countries.
Afro-Anglo-American Programm in Teacher Education
(A.A.A. Programme). Programme begun jointly by
Teachers College Columbia University, New York, and
the Institute of Education of London University, with
financial support from the Carnegie Corporations. It was
established to prepare teachers to teach in African
secondary schools and teacher education institutions.
Age Earnings Profile. Chart or table representing the
pattern of earnings for a worker (or workers) at different
ages.
Age-Grade Report (US). Analysis representing the number
of students in the normal grade for their age and the
number in higher and lower grades.
Age of Criminal Responsibility. It is the age at which a
child becomes subject to the criminal law of his/her
country or residence.

1
EDUCATIONAL TERMS
A
Abacus.Calculating devise made up of beads that can be
moved along parallel wires mounted in a frame.
Abendgymnasium.German adult education institute.
Abendschule.Refers to German evening school or night
school that is sponsored by industry or a municipality.
It provides both general and vocational education.
Abend-techniken. Swiss adult education institutions.
Ability Grouping. Method of grouping pupils or students
in accordance with their intellectual ability for teaching
purpose.
Ability Proflls. Chart or diagram that graphically -depicts
an individual’s score.
Ability Tests.Standardized tests carried out to assess the
overall efficiency of a person mentally.
Abreaction. Expression or release of repressed feelings
through increasing experiences in imagination.
Absenteeism.Refers to failure of a pupil to attend school
regularly.
Abstract.It is the process of writing or collecting abstracts.
Abstraction. Mathematical operation for which it is not
possible to imagine a concrete model. It also refers to
any intangible concept that is used to explain concrete
phenomena.
Absurdities Test. It is a form of mental test wherein the
subject is asked to point out whatever is absurd in a
statement, story or picture.
Academe. Refers to an academic institution or the
academic life.
Academicals. Refers to academic dress, pupils or ex-pupils
of an academy in Scotland.
Academic Aptitude or Ability. It is the ability to perform
well in academic education, e.g. a pupil winning merit
scholarship might be said to possess academic aptitude.
Academic Development.Refers to gain in knowledge and
ability to learn by students.
Academic Education. Education of an abstract kind,
generally demanding a high degree of academic ability.
Academic Elite.Refers to a select group educated to high
academic standards.
Academic Freedom (or Liberty). Refers to freedom of
educational institutions, universities, to decide the
courses.
Academic Games or Gaming.Educational use of games
for achieving certain behavioural objectives.
Academic Handicap. Refers to handicaps that limits a
student’s ability to learn.
Academician.Refers to distinguished scholar or member
of a national academy of sciences, arts, etc.
Academic Persistence. It is a measure of the extent to
which students continue their studies at school or
college.
Academic Against Poverty. It is a UK association to
teacher and lecturers concerned with alleviating the
effects of poverty in the international community.
Academic Selection. Refers to a process whereby
education is restricted by criteria of academic aptitude.
Academic Staff (or personnel). School, college or
university staff with teaching responsibilities. Know as
faculty in a US college/university.
Academic Standards. Criteria established by an
educational institution for determining levels of student
achievement.
Academic Tenure. Means permanency of appointment,
granted to a member of faculty or a academic staff.
Academic Year. Refers to period between new intakes of
students in a university, college, school, or other
academic institution.
Academic.(1) Netherlands non-university higher education
institution.
(2) One of 16 geographical areas into which France is
divided for the purposes of educational administration.
Academy of Management. It is US association for
teachers of management and business studies in college
and universities.
Academy of Pedagogical Science of the USSR
(Akademiya Pedagogicheskikh Nauk). It is a learned
society concerned with educational methods techniques
and organization.
Acalculia. Refers to state of inability to work with numbers
in mental operations.
Acatalepsia. Means inability to understand commands or
instructions.
Access and Survey Skills. Refers to skills that enables a
student to locate and select reading material pertinent
to his/her field of study.
Accessibility. It is the extent to which learning resources
can be made available to students who are unable to
use them at normal or specified times.
Accessory Material(US). Refers to teaching materials and
aids used to supplement basic textbooks.
Accidental Errors. Refers to mistakes in experimental
observations because of unknown variables that affect
results.
Accomplishment Quotient (AQ). It is the ratio of
educational age (EA) to mental age (MA).
Accountability. The extent to which student performance
is attributable to instruction rather than ageing, selective
admission, etc.
Accreditation. Means recognition and acceptance of the
academic standard of an educational establishment by
an outside accrediting agency, association or body like
an examination board, a professional and qualifying body.
Acculturation. Refers to leamine, consciously or
unconsciously, of a culture through contract with it. The
award of higher degree at the same time as a first or
lower degree, both from the same college or university.
Achievement. Refers to performance in school or college
in a standardized series of educational test.
Achievement Age. It is the age that corresponds to the
mean score on a given achievement test.
Achievement Analysis. Refers to examination of stages
in the progress of a project.
Achievement Curve. It is a graph of achievement in a
specific task or area of study as plotted against time or
number of trials.
Achievement Method of Marking. A method of marking
compositions and essays where in the examiner judges
are the writer’s intentions.
Achievement Quotient (AQ). It is the ratio between the
expected and actual measured performance level in a
educational or training programme. Sometimes called
accomplishment quotient or educational ratio.
Achievement Rating. Means comparing achieved

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