The lexical approach and lexical priming(1)

1. The Lexical Approach and Lexical Priming – a comparison of English and Chinese Michael Hoey University of Liverpool Lexical Approach conference, The University of Westminster, May 11th 2013

2. The Lexical Approach has been criticised for 1. Ignoring how language is learnt 2. Having no theoretical underpinning It is open to criticism for 3. Applying only to Indo-European languages

5. Three goals In this paper, however, I want to show that 1. The Lexical Approach is entirely compatible with (and supported by) reliable psycholinguistic evidence 2. The Lexical Approach is supported by at least one worked-out linguistic theory 3. The features of language that the Lexical Approach makes use of are as present in Chinese as they are in English

8. Three goals In this paper I want to show that 1. The Lexical Approach is entirely compatible with (and supported by) reliable psycholinguistic evidence 2. The Lexical Approach is supported by at least one worked-out linguistic theory 3. The features of language that the Lexical Approach makes use of are as present in Chinese as they are in English

9. How do we learn language? Some key psycholinguistic experiments Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. But there are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance: semantic priming repetition priming

10. How do we learn language? Some key psycholinguistic experiments Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. But there are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance: semantic priming repetition priming (with thanks to Michael Pace-Sigge)

11. How do we learn language? Some key psycholinguistic experiments Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. But there are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance: semantic priming repetition priming

12. Semantic priming In semantic priming experiments, informants are shown a word or image (referred to as the prime) and then shown a second word or image (known as the target word). The speed with which the target word is recognized is measured. Some primes appear to •slow up informants’ recognition of the target and others appear to •accelerate informants’ recognition of the target

13. Semantic priming For example, the prime word wing will have no effect on the recognition of the word director will typically inhibit the recognition of the word pig and will typically speed up the recognition of the word swan.

16. Semantic priming For example, the prime word milk will have no effect on the recognition of the word available, will typically inhibit the recognition of the word horse but will speed up the recognition of the word cow.

19. Semantic priming For example, the prime word milk will have no effect on the recognition of the word available, will typically inhibit the recognition of the word horse but will speed up the recognition of the word cow. At the moment, this is probably not true of beef, which draws attention that we are talking about linguistic experience, not world knowledge.

20. Semantic priming For example, the prime word milk will have no effect on the recognition of the word available, will typically inhibit the recognition of the word horse but will speed up the recognition of the word cow. At the moment, this is probably not true of beef, which draws attention that we are talking about linguistic experience, not world knowledge.

21. Semantic priming Pioneering semantic priming work was conducted by Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971), who demonstrated that priming was scientifically demonstrable. Their work was followed through by Shelton and Martin (1992) (among others), who appear to show that semantic priming only works when the priming word and the target are associated in the informant’s mind. McRae and Boisvert (1998) argue however that if the words in question have closely related meanings there will be a priming effect even without association.

24. What is the significance of this to the language learner? We have proof that words are closely linked to each other in the listener’s mind, and that words that are closely linked can be recognised more quickly (and presumably used more quickly). This doesn’t fit well with the idea that words are slotted into grammatical frames.

25. What is the significance of this to the language learner? We have proof that words are closely linked to each other in the listener’s mind, and that words that are closely linked can be recognised more quickly (and presumably used more quickly). This doesn’t fit well with the idea that words are slotted into grammatical frames.

26. What is the significance of this to the language learner? We have proof that words are closely linked to each other in the listener’s mind, and that words that are closely linked can be recognised more quickly (and presumably used more quickly). This does fit well with the lexical approach.

27. How do we learn language? Some key psycholinguistic experiments Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. There are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance: semantic priming repetition priming

28. How do we learn language? Some key psycholinguistic experiments Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. There are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance: semantic priming repetition priming

29. Repetition priming Repetition priming is rather different from semantic priming, in that the prime and the target are identical. Experiments with repetition priming centre around exposing informants to word combinations and then, sometimes after a considerable amount of time and after they’ve seen or heard lots of other material, measuring how quickly or accurately the informants recognize the combination when they finally see/hear it again.

30. Repetition priming For example, a listener may be shown the word SCARLET followed by the word ONION. A day later, if s/he is shown the word SCARLET again, s/he will recognise ONION more quickly than other words. The assumption must be that s/he remembers the combination from the first time, since the words SCARLET ONION will only rarely have occurred before (if ever).

33. Repetition priming Key papers on these facets of repetition priming are those of Jacoby and Dallas (1981), who observed greater accuracy in the identification of the target, and Scarborough, Cortese, and Scarborough (1977), who noted a faster response time. Forster and Davis (1984) observed that these effects of repetition priming were more noticeable when the words in question were of low frequency in the language.

34. Repetition priming Key papers on these facets of repetition priming are those of Jacoby and Dallas (1981), who observed greater accuracy in the identification of the target, and Scarborough, Cortese, and Scarborough (1977), who noted a faster response time. Forster and Davis (1984) observed that these effects of repetition priming were more noticeable when the words in question were of low frequency in the language.

35. Repetition priming Repetition priming potentially provides an explanation of both semantic priming and collocation. If a listener or reader encounters two words in combination, and stores them as a combination, then the ability of one of the words to accelerate recognition of the other is explained. If the listener or reader then draws upon this combination in his or her own utterance, then the reproduction of collocation is also explained.

39. Three goals In this paper I want to show that 1. The Lexical Approach is entirely compatible with (and supported by) reliable psycholinguistic evidence DEFINITELY 2. The Lexical Approach is supported by at least one worked-out linguistic theory 3. The features of language that the Lexical Approach makes use of are as present in Chinese as they are in English

41. Problems with many existing theories of language 1. Fluency is harder to explain than creativity 2. There is no single language but lots of varying languages masquerading as a single language, but most theories try to ignore this. 3. When we hear or read a word with multiple meanings (i.e. almost every word in common usage), we know which meaning is meant – but how? 4. Collocations are universal, but grammars largely operate as if they don’t exist 5. They don’t account for collocation (the partly arbitrary tendency of words to co-occur, e.g. growing fears, developing conflict)

45. Problems with many existing theories of language 1. Fluency is harder to explain than creativity 2. There is no single language but lots of varying languages masquerading as a single language, but most theories try to ignore this. 3. When we hear or read a word with multiple meanings (i.e. almost every word in common usage), we know which meaning is meant – but how? 4. Collocations are universal, but grammars largely operate as if they are trivial 5. They don’t account for collocation (the partly arbitrary tendency of words to co-occur, e.g. growing fears, developing conflict)

46. Accounting for collocation has to be central to any account of fluency and therefore to any theory of language with psychological plausibility and must centre around how words are learnt

47. Accounting for collocation has to be central to any account of fluency and therefore to any theory of language with psychological plausibility and must centre around how words are learnt d must centre around how words are learnt

48. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously • the words it occurs with (its collocations), • the grammatical patterns it occurs in (its colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations),

49. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously • the words it occurs with (its collocations), • the grammatical patterns it occurs in (its colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations),

50. hard worked hard tried hard fought hard die hard found it hard prayed hard raining hard squeezed hard

51. hard worked hard tried hard fought hard die hard found it hard prayed hard raining hard squeezed hard

52. hard hard to believe hard to understand hard to imagine hard to explain hard to follow hard to hear hard to remember hard to bear

53. hard hard luck hard line hard facts hard evidence hard lives hard water hard labour hard winter hard currency

54. wordcollocates with against and a a word against has a semantic association with sending & receiving communication (e.g. hear a word against) send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against)

55. wordcollocates with against and a or your(s) a word against your word against mine a word against)

56. wordcollocates with against and a or your(s) a word against your word against mine a word against)

57. ears collocates with eyes 225 10% and also ears and nose ears, nose and throat ears and eyes ears and hands ears and nostrils etc

58. ears collocates with eyes 225 10% and also ears and nose ears, nose and throat ears and eyes ears and hands ears and nostrils etc

59. Crucially, once a priming has been created, it is itself subject to further priming, e.g. eyes and ears is primed for most of us to collocate with act as the Bank of China, which acts as Peking’s eyes and ears among Hong Kong’s banking community 14 out of 124 lines of eyes and ears in the Guardian corpus (11%)

60. Crucially, once a priming has been created, it is itself subject to further priming, e.g. a word against is primed for most of us to co- occur with sending & receiving communication

61. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously • the words it occurs with (its collocations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations),

62. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously • the words it occurs with (its collocations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations),

63. wordcollocates with against and a a word against has a semantic association with sending & receiving communication (e.g. hear a word against) send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against)

64. ears collocates with2294 eyes 225 10% and also ears and nose ears, nose and throat ears and eyes ears and hands ears and nostrils etc

65. ears co-occurs with2294 eyes 225 10% and also ears and nose ears, nose and throat ears and eyes ears and hands ears and nostrils etc

66. ears 2294 eyes 225 10% and also squashy fingers and crinkly ears swollen ankles and painful ears buck teeth and cauliflower ears bulbous nose and big ears long tail and pointed ears etc

67. ears 2294 eyes 225 10% and also squashy fingers and crinkly ears swollen ankles and painful earsbuck teeth and cauliflower ears bulbous nose and big ears long tail and pointed ears etc

68. ears 2294 eyes 225 10% and also close the eyes and put the ears to work follow my nose and keep my ears open shielding his eyes and covering his ears zaps the eyes and blasts the ears biting our nails and covering our ears etc

69. ears 2294 has a semantic association with PARTS OF BODY at least 525 cases 23%

70. ears 2294 has a semantic association with PARTS OF BODY at least 525 cases 23%

71. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously • the words it occurs with (its collocations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations), • the pragmatics it is associated with (its pragmatic associations),

72. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously • the words it occurs with (its collocations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations), • the pragmatics it is associated with (its pragmatic associations),

73. reason is often denied That’s not the reason why… For no particular reason… For some reason or other… Whatever the reason…

74. consequence tends to be negative e.g. the grim consequence, one dire consequence, a bleak consequence result tends to be positive e.g. a great result, the perfect result, a fine result

75. send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against) denial + send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with hypotheticality (e.g. wasn’t prepared to say a word against)

78. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we also note subconsciously • the grammatical patterns it is associated with (its colligations), • the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in, • whether it is used in a context we are likely to want to emulate or not

79. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we also note subconsciously • the grammatical patterns it is associated with (its colligations), • the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in, • whether it is used in a context we are likely to want to emulate or not

80. consequence tends to be indefinite e.g. another consequence, one consequence, a consequence result tends to be definite e.g. this result, the result

81. reason and result tend not to be possessed e.g. the reason was…, the result was… reasons and results can be possessed e.g. my reasons were…, our results

82. denial + send/receive a word against colligates with modal verbs (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against) denial + send/receive a word against also colligates with human subjects and human prepositional objects

84. denial + send/receive a word against colligates with modal verbs (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against) denial + send/receive a word against also colligates with human subjectsand human prepositional objects

86. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we also note subconsciously • the grammatical patterns it is associated with (its colligations), • the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in

87. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we also note subconsciously • the grammatical patterns it is associated with (its colligations), • the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in

88. denial + send/receive a word against is used in reasonably colloquial English.

89. The Lexical Priming (textual) claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we also note subconsciously • whether it is typically cohesive (its textual collocations) • whether the word is associated with a particular textual relation (its textual semantic associations) • the positions in a text that it occurs in, e.g. does it like to begin sentences? Does it like to start paragraphs? (its textual colligations),

90. The Lexical Priming (textual) claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we also note subconsciously • whether it is typically cohesive (its textual collocations) • whether the word is associated with a particular textual relation (its textual semantic associations) • the positions in a text that it occurs in, e.g. does it like to begin sentences? Does it like to start paragraphs? (its textual colligations),

91. denial + send/receive a word against is not used in cohesion, i.e. you don’t get successive repetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

92. denial + send/receive a word against is not used in cohesion, i.e. you don’t get successive repetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

93. Lexical Priming and the Properties of Text: claim 1: Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically be primed to occur as part of a cohesive chain or avoid such a chain (its textual collocations)

94. Lee Yuan-tseh humbles Chen URGED TO RESIGN: Former Academia Sinica president Lee Yuan-tseh wrote that the president should seriously consider stepping down for the sake of the nation’s stability President Chen Shui-bian has expressed his gratitude for former Academia Sinica president Lee Yuan-tseh’s advice after the Nobel laureate wrote an open letter to Chen asking him to consider resigning, the Presidential Office said yesterday.In a press release, the Department of Public Affairs said Chen had said that the question of whether he stays in office or steps down is of little significance to him personally, but that he would still listen to different voices on the matter. Lee issued the letter on Thursday from Paris, where he is attending a conference. In his letter, Lee called on Chen to seriously consider resigning for the sake of the nation’s stability following the indictment of first lady Wu Shu-jen on corruption and forgery charges. Describing the indictment as “a vital challenge for the long-term reform and establishment of Taiwan’s democratic core values,” Lee, who previously served as head of a group of national policy advisers to the president, said that Chen and the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) “must choose between their party and the entire country.” Lee said Taiwan now faces one of its most serious challenges in its democratic history, resulting from Wu’s indictment and Chen’s alleged misuse of a public funds.

95. Lee Yuan-tseh humbles Chen URGED TO RESIGN: Former Academia Sinica president Lee Yuan-tseh wrote that the president should seriously consider stepping down for the sake of the nation’s stability President Chen Shui-bian has expressed his gratitude for former Academia Sinica president Lee Yuan-tseh’s advice after the Nobel laureate wrote an open letter to Chen asking him to consider resigning, the Presidential Office said yesterday.In a press release, the Department of Public Affairs said Chen had said that the question of whether he stays in office or steps down is of little significance to him personally, but that he would still listen to different voices on the matter. Lee issued the letter on Thursday from Paris, where he is attending a conference. In his letter, Lee called on Chen to seriously consider resigning for the sake of the nation’s stability following the indictment of first lady Wu Shu-jen on corruption and forgery charges. Describing the indictment as “a vital challenge for the long-term reform and establishment of Taiwan’s democratic core values,” Lee, who previously served as head of a group ofnational policy advisers to the president, said that Chen and the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) “must choose between their party and the entire country.” Lee said Taiwan now faces one of its most serious challenges in its democratic history, resulting from Wu’s indictment and Chen’s alleged misuse of a public funds.

97. Lexical Priming and the Properties of Text: claim 1a: Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically primed to occur with particular types of cohesion

104. So as we read, and identify the cohesion, we are primed both for the collocations, colligations and semantic associations AND ALSO for the cohesive relationships between the occurrences of the item or between the item and other items (or for the absence of such relationships). If there is no difference in principle between being primed by a single text and primed on many occasions by many different texts, then maybe the same is true in reverse – perhaps there is no difference in principle between cohesion WITHIN a text and cohesion BETWEEN texts.

105. There is no difference in principle between being primed by a single text and primed on many occasions by many different texts. then maybe the same is true in reverse – perhaps there is no difference in principle between cohesion WITHIN a text and cohesion BETWEEN texts.

106. The Lexical Priming claim Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously • whether it is typically cohesive (its textual collocations) • whether the word is associated with a particular textual relation (its textual semantic associations) • the positions in a text that it occurs in, e.g. does it like to begin sentences? Does it like to start paragraphs? (its textual colligations),

108. Lexical Priming and the Properties of Text: claim 2: Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically primed for occurring as part of a specific type of semantic relation (its textual semantic associations)

109. The claim is that every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be positively or negatively primed for occurring as part of a specific type of semantic or pragmatic relation or in a specific textual pattern, e.g. contrast, comparison, time sequence, cause-effect, exemplification, Problem-Solution, Gap in Knowledge filling.

110. The semantic relations or discourse patterns a word may be primed to associate with may be • textual, i.e. the relations between clauses or parts of clauses or between larger chunks of text • interactive, reflecting and incorporating relations between a speaker and a listener of the kind described in conversational analysis

111. denial + send/receive a word against is used in contexts where someone has been or is about to be criticised

112. McCarthy (1998) notes that got is associated with the Problem element of Problem- Solution patterns.

113. Hunston (2001) likewise notes that the combination may not be is associated with contrast between ideal and more achievable.

114. She also notes that fetedasis associated with contrast.

115. Of 100 examples of sixty in my data, 41 occurred in a contrast relation, 37 occurred within the Problem component of a Problem-Solution pattern 16 occurred in a non-contrastive comparison relation 21 instances not accounted for. (They add up to more than 100 because of the possibility of a clause being in more than one textual relation).

116. Of 100 instances of agoat the beginning of a clause, 55 occurred in a contrast relation 16 occurred in some kind of comparison relation. (The proportions rise still further if instances of not long agoand as long ago as are discounted.)

117. Of 100 cases of today , 35 occurred in contrast relations, though most of the contrasts crossed sentence boundaries. 23 occurred in time sequence relations. 9 were associated with proposals of some kind 9 were associated with a statement of purpose of some kind.

118. So texts prime our vocabulary for us, as we saw earlier AND our vocabulary is in turn primed to organise texts for us

121. Lexical Priming and the Properties of Text: claim 3: Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically primed to occurring in a special position in a text, e.g. at the beginning of sentences – or paragraphs! (its textual colligations)

122. denial + send/receive a word against is typically used at the end of a sentence

123. According to a theory... We can use according to a to illustrate where we have arrived.

124. accordingcollocates with against and a a word against has a semantic association with sending & receiving communication (e.g. hear a word against) send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against)

125. accordingcollocates with to and a a word against has a semantic association with sending & receiving communication (e.g. hear a word against) send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against)

126. according to ahas a semantic association with sending & receiving communication (e.g. hear a word against) send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against)

127. according to a has a semantic association, in newspapers, with research sources (e.g. according to a study) send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against)

128. according to a research source has, in newspapers, a pragmatic association with reporting something bad has a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against) denial + send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with hypotheticality (e.g. wasn’t prepared to say a word against)

129. according to a research source has, in newspapers, a pragmatic association with reporting something badhas a pragmatic association with denial (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against) denial + send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with hypotheticality (e.g. wasn’t prepared to say a word against)

130. according to a research study is often followed in newspapers by a which clause colligates with modal verbs (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against) denial + send/receive a word against also colligates with human subjects and human prepositional objects

131. according to a research study has the colligation in newspapers of being often followed by a which clause (e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against) denial + send/receive a word against also colligates with human subjects and human prepositional objects

132. according to is not used in cohesion, i.e. you don’t get successive repetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

133. according to has the textual collocation of rarely being repeated directly but of being paraphrased in subsequent paragraphs as said, told etcrepetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

134. according to a research source

135. according to a research source has the textual semantic association of being usually part of a claim-evidence relation

136. according to a research studysecond half of the sentence, often the end of the sentence. used at the end of a sentence

137. according to a research study has the textual colligation of being very strongly associated in newspapers with (a) first sentence of the news story (b)second half of the sentence, often the end of the sentence.

138. according to a research study has the genre characteristic of being used in newspaper English.

139. So... Lexical priming can take account of • Collocation • Semantic association • Pragmatic association • Colligation (i.e.grammar) • Textual collocation • Textual semantic association • Textual colligation • Genre

141. Three goals In this paper I want to show that 1. The Lexical Approach is entirely compatible with (and supported by) reliable psycholinguistic evidence 2. The Lexical Approach is supported by at least one worked-out linguistic theory YES 3. The features of language that the Lexical Approach makes use of are as present in Chinese as they are in English

143. English versus Chinese NOT SHARED • Fairly clear boundary between words and morphemes • Intonation as a discourse feature • Time and number marked grammatically ? NOT SHARED • No clear boundary between words and morphemes • Tone as a feature of the lexicon • Time and number marked lexically

144. The Lexical Priming claims As we have more and more encounters with the word, syllable, or word combination, we come to identify • the word or words that characteristically accompany it (its collocations), • the grammatical patterns with which it is associated (its colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations), • and the pragmatics with which it is associated (its pragmatic associations).

145. The Lexical Priming claims How about Chinese?

146. The Lexical Priming claims How about Chinese? Work of Xiao &McEnery

147. hăo appears to collocate with hăo rén hăo shū hěn hăo hăo bù hăo hăo fēngjĭng

148. hăo hăo rén hăo shū hěn hăo hăo bù hăo hăo fēngjĭng

153. The Lexical Priming claim As we have more and more encounters with the word, syllable, or word combination, we come to identify • the word or words that characteristically accompany it (its collocations), • the grammatical patterns with which it is associated (its colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations), • and the pragmatics with which it is associated (its pragmatic associations).

154. The Lexical Priming claims How about Chinese?

155. bìngappears to associate with negation tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù (He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009) wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù (I really am not willing to live with him) (from Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: a Practical Guide by Claudia Ross & Jing-hen Sheng Ma, 2006) wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ (I’m not actually criticising you) (from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson& Tony McEnery)

156. bìngappears to associate with negation tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù (He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009) wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù (I really am not willing to live with him) (from Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: a Practical Guide by Claudia Ross & Jing-hen Sheng Ma, 2006) wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ (I’m not actually criticising you) (from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson& Tony McEnery

157. bìngappears to associate with negation tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù (He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009) wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù (I really am not willing to live with him) (from Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: a Practical Guide by Claudia Ross & Jing-hen Sheng Ma, 2006) wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ (I’m not actually criticising you) (from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson& Tony McEnery

158. bìngappears to associate with negation tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù (He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009) wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù (I really am not willing to live with him) (from Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: a Practical Guide by Claudia Ross & Jing-hen Sheng Ma, 2006) wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ (I’m not actually criticising you) (modified from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson& Tony McEnery, 2009)

159. bìngappears to associate with pronouns tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù zhèbìngbúsuàntàihuài (this is not too bad).

160. bìngappears to associate with pronouns tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù zhèbìngbúsuàntàihuài (this is not too bad). ’

163. The Lexical Priming claims As we have more and more encounters with the word, syllable, or word combination, we come to identify • the word or words that characteristically accompany it (its collocations), • the grammatical patterns with which it is associated (its colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic associations), • and the pragmatics with which it is associated (its pragmatic associations).

164. semantic association How about Chinese?

165. hòuhuǐ 2294 has a semantic association with UNWANTED OUTCOMES OF ACTIONS TAKEN hòuhuǐwŏcuòwù mistake hòuhuǐwŏcuò error hòuhuǐwŏzuìguò sin hòuhuǐshāngwáng casualties hòuhuǐshìgù (car) accident

166. hòuhuǐ 2294 has a semantic association with UNHAPPY ACTION TAKEN (OR HAPPY ACTION NOT TAKEN) BY SPEAKER hòuhuǐwŏcuòwù mistake hòuhuǐwŏcuò error hòuhuǐwŏzuìguò sin hòuhuǐshāngwáng casualties hòuhuǐshìgù (car) accident

167. hòuhuǐ 2294 has a semantic association with UNHAPPY ACTION TAKEN (OR HAPPY ACTION NOT TAKEN) BY SPEAKER wŏhòuhuǐfàncuòwùmaking a mistake hòuhuǐwŏcuò error hòuhuǐwŏzuìguò sin hòuhuǐshāngwáng casualties hòuhuǐshìgù (car) accident

168. hòuhuǐ 2294 has a semantic association with UNHAPPY ACTION TAKEN (OR HAPPY ACTION NOT TAKEN) BY SPEAKER wŏhòuhuǐfàncuòwùmaking a mistake wŏhòuhuǐchūcuòcommitting an error hòuhuǐwŏzuìguò sin hòuhuǐshāngwáng casualties hòuhuǐshìgù (car) accident

169. hòuhuǐ 2294 has a semantic association with UNHAPPY ACTION TAKEN (OR HAPPY ACTION NOT TAKEN) BY SPEAKER wŏhòuhuǐfàncuòwùmaking a mistake wŏhòuhuǐchūcuòcommitting an error wŏhòuhuǐméiqù… not going wŏhòuhuǐtīngtā de huà listening to his/her words

170. hòuhuǐ 2294 has a semantic association with UNHAPPY ACTION TAKEN (OR HAPPY ACTION NOT TAKEN) BY SPEAKER wŏhòuhuǐfàncuòwùmaking a mistake wŏhòuhuǐchūcuòcommitting an error wŏhòuhuǐméiqù… not going wŏhòuhuǐtīngtā de huàlistening to his/her words

171. diànelectricity, power frequency rankinghuà phone 338 yǐng movie 658 shì TV 696 năo computer 1118 tī lift, elevator 3938 bīngziāng fridge 13089 frequency rankings from Xiao et al (2009)

172. diàn frequency rankinghuà phone 338yǐng movie 658 shì TV 696 năo computer 1118 tī lift, elevator 3938 bīngziāng fridge 13089 frequency rankings from Xiao et al (2009)

177. diàn electricity, power frequency rankinghuà phone 338yǐng movie 658 shì TV 696 năo computer 1118 tī lift, elevator 3938 bīngxiāngfridge 13089 frequency rankings from Xiao et al (2009)

180. Morphemes/syllables Sub-components of the word do not have the freedoms that words have and may not always be meaningful. Not all morphemes are syllables Not all syllables are morphemes Morphemes are lexico-grammatical Syllables are phonetic

181. So how about the priming of word components? (The closest analogy in English to the character in Chinese?)

182. So how about the priming of word components? (The closest analogy in English to the character in Chinese?)

183. The primings of -eries In the combined corpora of the Guardian and the BNC, there were 118,932 tokens of words ending –eries. There were 142 separate tokens.

184. snotteriessplatteriesmiseries sludgeriesslickeries dysenteries grotesqueries gaucheries camperies flummeries flatteries eriesassociates with NASTY SUBSTANCE and occurs within (arguable) UNPLEASANTNESS 11 out of 142 = 8%

185. adulteriestrickeries treacheries mockeriessnobberiesruderies bitcheriesskulduggeriessavageries debaucheries robberiesquackeries pruderies lecheriesbutcheries enslaveriesruderies chicaneries Cf. burglaries eriesassociates with CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT and also occurs within CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT 24 of 142 =17%

186. adulteriestrickeries treacheries mockeriessnobberiesruderies bitcheriesskulduggeriessavageries debaucheries robberiesquackeries pruderies lecheriesbutcheries enslaveriesruderies chicaneries Cf. burglaries eriesassociates with CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT and also occurs within CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT 24 of 142 =17% . So 25% - CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT/ UNPLEASANTNESS

187. wineries potteries tanneries saddleries rotisseries creperies refineries perfumeries patisseries ouzeriesnoodleries bakeries meaderiessmokeries hatcheries haberdasheries?fisheries distilleries creameries collieries canneries breweries butteries fromageries boulangeries piggeries orangeries nurseries [in one sense] 28 out of 142 = 20% WHICH MEANS THAT 45% OF TYPES OF eries ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THREE MEANINGS

189. English versus Chinese NOT SHARED • Fairly clear boundary between words and morphemes???? • Intonation as a discourse feature • Time and number marked grammatically ? NOT SHARED • No clear boundary between words and morphemes • Tone as a feature of the lexicon • Time and number marked lexically

192. bìngappears to associate with negation tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù (He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009) wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù (I really am not willing to live with him) (from Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: a Practical Guide by Claudia Ross & Jing-hen Sheng Ma, 2006) wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ (I’m not actually criticising you) (modified from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson& Tony McEnery, 2009)

193. bìngappears to associate with negation (also a pragmatic association) tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù (He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009) wŏbìngbùyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù (I really am not willing to live with him) (from Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: a Practical Guide by Claudia Ross & Jing-hen Sheng Ma, 2006) wŏbìngbù xiăngpīpíngnǐ (I’m not actually criticising you) (modified from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson& Tony McEnery, 2009)

194. colligation PREMODIFICATION&wine combines with collocation dry&wine and semantic association FLAVOUR&wine and pragmatic association INSTRUCTION, ADVICE, REQUEST

198. colligation combines with collocation and semantic association and pragmatic association IS THIS TRUE OF CHINESE TOO?

199. colligation combines with collocation and semantic association and pragmatic association IT SEEMS SO

200. colligation jīntiān : no subject or verb combines with collocation lěng and semantic association TEMPERATURE and pragmatic association EVALUATION IN CONVERSATION

204. English versus Chinese difference NOT SHARED • Fairly clear boundary between words and morphemes • Intonation as a discourse feature • Time and number marked grammatically in the verb s this another difference NOT SHARED • No clear boundary between words and morphemes • Tone as a feature of the lexicon • Time and number marked contextually around the verb

205. tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù wŏbìngbùxiăngpīpíngnǐ wŏbìngbúyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù zhèbìngbúsuàntàihuài u’

208. tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù wŏbìngbùxiăngpīpíngnǐ wŏbìngbúyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù zhèbìngbúsuàntàihuài In some dialects hăo = I agree háo= I’m not sure I agree

209. tājīnwăn bìngbù xiăngchūqù wŏbìngbùxiăngpīpíngnǐ wŏbìngbúyuànyigēntāyīqǐzhù zhèbìngbúsuàntàihuài Compare rèally= I agree réally= I’m not sure I agree u’

210. suggest that English and Chinese are learnt the same way by children – as tunes, where the tunes are associated with collocations. In Chinese the tunes are eventually decomposed into tones because of the tightnessof the association of lexis and tone – but there are residual tunes.

211. suggest that English and Chinese are learnt the same way by children – as tunes, where the tunes are associated with collocations. In English the tunes are eventually generalised into intonation because of the looseness of the association of lexis and tone – but there are residual tones.

213. Three goals In this paper I want to show that 1. The Lexical Approach is entirely compatible with (and supported by) reliable psycholinguistic evidence 2. The Lexical Approach is supported by at least one worked-out linguistic theory 3. The features of language that the Lexical Approach makes use of are as present in Chinese as they are in English PROBABLY

215. The Lexical Approach has been FALSELY criticised for 1. Ignoring how language is learnt 2. Having no theoretical underpinning It is open to criticism for 3. Applying only to Indo-European languages

216. The Lexical Approach has been FALSELY criticised for 1. Ignoring how language is learnt 2. Having no theoretical underpinning It is NOT open to criticism for 3. Applying only to Indo-European languages

217. The Lexical Approach has been FALSELY criticised for 1. Ignoring how language is learnt 2. Having no theoretical underpinning It is NOTopen to criticism for 3. Applying only to Indo-European languages IT IS SAFE TO USE

218. The Lexical Approach has been FALSELY criticised for 1. Ignoring how language is learnt 2. Having no theoretical underpinning It is NOTopen to criticism for 3. Applying only to Indo-European languages IT IS SAFE TO USE – BUT WE ALWAYS KNEW THAT, DIDN’T WE?

219. Thank you for listening hoeymp@liv.ac.uk

The lexical approach and lexical priming(1)

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