Sheila holder's disseration proposal 2.3a

Salient factorsthat impact expatriateteachers working in Bermuda

By

Sheila V. Holder

Dissertation Proposal submitted to Northern Caribbean University
In partial fulfillment of the doctor of philosophy degree
At
Northern Caribbean University

February 5,2012

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

Rationale...................................................................................................................................... 3

The Background to the Problem.................................................................................................. 6

Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 11

Purpose Statement ..................................................................................................................... 12

Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 12

Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 12

Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 14

Delimitations/Limitations of the Study ..................................................................................... 19

Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... 20

Ethical Considerations............................................................................................................... 21

Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 23

Review of Literature ..................................................................................................................... 23

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 23

Expatriates in Biblical Settings ................................................................................................. 24

Socialization .............................................................................................................................. 27

Culture ....................................................................................................................................... 29

Culture Shock ............................................................................................................................ 30

Intercultural Competence .......................................................................................................... 34

Cross Cultural Adjustment ........................................................................................................ 36

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Social learning theory. ........................................................................................................... 39

Self-efficacy theory. .............................................................................................................. 41

Transformational learning theory. ......................................................................................... 42

Critical Factors that Impact Expatriate Teachers during their Work Experience ..................... 44

Inadequate preparation for work overseas. ............................................................................ 44

Personality characteristics. .................................................................................................... 45

Stress, tolerance, and coping. ................................................................................................ 46

Homesickness and loneliness. ............................................................................................... 48

Behavior of Students ................................................................................................................. 48

Family Related Situations ......................................................................................................... 50

Summary ................................................................................................................................... 51

Chapter 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 54

Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 54

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 54

Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 54

Proposed Sample ....................................................................................................................... 56

Criteria for Selection of Teachers ............................................................................................. 57

Principals ................................................................................................................................... 57

Data Gathering .......................................................................................................................... 58

Interviews .................................................................................................................................. 59

Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 60

Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................................. 62

References ..................................................................................................................................... 65

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Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 74

Letter of Consent to Principal ................................................................................................... 74

Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 76

Interview.................................................................................................................................... 76

Appendix C ................................................................................................................................... 77

Participant Information ............................................................................................................. 77

1

Chapter 1

Introduction

The island of Bermuda, which has a total land area of 21 square miles and often called

the pearl of the Atlantic, is a self governing colony, located off the east coast of the United

States. It is positioned in the North Atlantic Ocean and lies 640 miles to the southeast of Cape

Hatteras, North Carolina. Bermuda is 853 miles south of Halifax Nova Scotia, and 1,100 miles

northeast of Miami Florida. One of the nine smallest populated places in the world, Bermuda

was discovered in 1505 by Juan de Bermudez, a Spanish navigator. The island lay dormant

without settlers until 1609 when English sailors, shipwrecked by a terrible storm, landed on its

shores. The island was colonized by the English in 1612 and became a crown colony of Britain

in1684.Its status changed to an overseas territory in 2002. Its economy is based on international

business and tourism. Its gross national product per capita is reported to be among the worlds‘

highest.

The island has a hilly terrain and is a mile and a half at its widest point. It has nine

parishes and two municipalities one of which is the capital city of Hamilton. The other

municipality is the town of St. George‘s. The humid sub-tropical climate is warmed by the Gulf

Stream because of the prevailing westerlies that carry winds eastward causing mild winters with

an average temperature of 68 degrees, although the humidity and the wind chill often make the

temperature feel much colder. The average summer temperature is 84 degrees. Prior to 1965, the

Bermuda school system was racially segregated. When the desegregation of schools act was

enacted in 1965, two of the formally maintained ―white‖ schools and both single-sex schools

opted to become private schools. One of the formally single-sex schools is now categorized as

coeducational. The rest became part of the public school system and were either aided or

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maintained. At present, there are 26 schools in the Bermuda Public School System, 18of which

are primary schools,five are middle schools, two are senior schools, and one special school.

There are two aided primary schools, two aided middle schools, and one aided senior school.

There are six private schools in all with two of them being classified as religious schools.

The educational system in Bermuda is deemed as independent because it is not aligned

with any other country such as Britain, Canada, or the United States. There are no bilingual

schools because the population is mainly English speaking and there has been no real demand for

them even with our growing multi-cultural population.Bermuda‘s educational structure as

outlined by the Education Act of 1996 states that only three categories of schools can operate in

the Bermuda Education System. The categories are as follows:

Aided school- has all or a part of its property vested in a body of trustees or board of

governors and is partially maintained by public funding or, since 1965 and the

desegregation of schools, has received a grant-in-aid out of public funds.

Maintained school- has the whole of its property belonging to the Government and is

fully maintained by public funds.

Private school- not maintained by public funds and has not, since 1965 and the

desegregation of schools, received any capital grant-in-aid out of public funds. The

private school sector consists of sixtraditional private schools; two of which are religious

schools, and the remaining four are secular with one of these being a single gender

school. Within the private sector there are a number of home schools that must be

registered with the government. They receive minimal government regulation.

There are insufficient Bermudian teachers to satisfyall of the teaching vacancies that

occur in the system.At the time this study was conducted the Ministry of Education

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employed746 teachers. One hundred forty of these teachers are recorded as non-Bermudian. It

should be noted here that the term non-Bermudian encompasses two distinct categories: The

first category being the spouse of a Bermudian whose status will change after 10years if the

person remains married to their Bermudian spouseand the secondcategory being a person who

has been recruited and is employed on the island for a specific skill set with definite time limits

and restrictions.

Many of the expatriate teachers have been recruited mainly from Canada, United States,

United Kingdom, and the Caribbean islands. A fewer number are now arriving from the

Philippines and India. Expatriates teachers are employed at every level of the public school

educational system from pre-primary to secondary.All teachers in Bermuda, Bermudian or

expatriate, must hold a valid license from the Bermuda Educators‘ Council to teach in the public

or private schools.

The Employment Survey of Department of Statistics reports that most of the expatriate

teachers, 40%, are employed at the secondary level of education. This can be contrasted with a

mere two percent teaching at the pre-primary level(Bermuda Government of Annual

Employment Survey 2010).

A brief overview of the education system has been provided here as a backdrop into the

complexities of the country that will be encountered by the expatriate teachers. They will be

referred to as an expat on occasion. By introducing a snapshot of the host culture one can achieve

an understanding not only of the Bermudian populace but an awareness and appreciation of the

perspectives, perceptions,and way of life confronted by expatriate teachers who live in the

country of Bermuda.

Rationale

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Immigrating from coast to coast and country to country and teaching in a foreign country

can present opportunities and challenges for expatriate teachers as they confront critical issues

that impact their tenure while fulfilling their professional responsibilities and adjusting to an

unfamiliar social-cultural and academic environment. When expats first arrive in a host country

they are thrust into an unfamiliar environment–their senses are bombarded with novelsounds,

smells, sights, and way of life in this new the social environment.

All of these factors have a direct impact on the mind-set, viewpoint,andactivities of the

expatriate teacher. Just trying to understand the culture into which they‘ve entered is a complex

undertaking. They‘ve arrived in the host country with head knowledge, but no practical

knowledge about the socialization of the new society orhow they will adequatelyfit into the new

culture. One expatriate teacher noted, ―Even though I checked the Internet and knew prices were

high, nothing prepared me for the first time I bought groceries. The culture shock I felt when I

was at the checkout counter and the cashier said ‗$252.00‘ and all I had was four bags of

grocerieswas mind boggling.‖Garson (2005) an American educator, writing, about her first

arrival in Cairo commentedthat nothing in her preparation had prepared her for her entrance into

this vibrant,frenetic, and chaotic 24/7 city. Yet expatriates are expected to adjust to a different

culture almost immediately, perform their job responsibilities capably, and be ready for the

nuances that a different culture can bring. Some expatriate teachers stay in the host country for a

relatively short period of time, a year or less, and others extend their stay beyond the expected

initial norm that is the contractedtenure.

My interest in these experiences of expatriate teachers developed from current and past

professional experiences. In 1994, I became the principal of a K-12 private school with a student

population of about 500 students. I had always taught with expatriate teachers on the staff,

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however,as a principal I was immediately confronted with expatriate teachers on a different

echelon. One of my pressing challenges was locating qualified teachers who would fill vacant

positions in the elementary and secondary sections of the school. I was not only concerned with

the effectiveness of the expatriate teacher‘sstay in the school system, but also their length of stay.

I wanted to ascertain the factors and conditions that would contribute to a long and successful

sojourn.

Because I was unable to secure enough Bermudian teachers at the school, expatriate

teachers had to be hired who could adapt to the Bermudian culture and contribute to the ultimate

academic success of students. I recognized that all students are deserving of a quality education

and as such I wanted teachers in the school who would contribute to that goal. I felt more

accountable for the continuing success of the expatriate teachers. Their success in the classroom

and their acclimation to the island was paramount to the academic success of the students. I

wanted to achieve better success in this aspect of my administration.

I already had firsthand knowledge of expatriate teachers who arrived on the island, settled

in, and accepted the challenges of adapting to a different culture. They interacted successfully

with other faculty members, parents, and students. They acclimated into the school environment

successfully. The students were successful in their relationships with them and in their academic

studies. Alternatively, I had encountered expatriate teachers who just seemed unable to deal with

the nuances of their new environment. There seemed to be too many challenges-culturally,

socially, and academically for them to overcome. The realities of teaching in the host country did

notresonate with their expectations. Their coping competencedid not allow the expatriate

teachers to adequately address, cope with, or deal with the stressors they accounted. Some of

these teachers had difficulty adapting to the school environment or the Bermudian way of life in

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general. After a year, or two at the most, they decided to leave the island even though they were

contracted for three years or six years and would take a financial loss and possibly lose face

among their colleagues.

The Background to the Problem

There are strict guidelines and conditions that govern the working status of all expatriate

workers in Bermuda. Expatriates initially come to the island on a one, two, or three year contract.

If at the end of the contracted period a qualified Bermudian is available and has applied for the

position then the contract of the expatriate is not renewed. In many cases it does not matter if the

expat has performed with excellence or with mediocrity, the position is awarded to the

Bermudian applicant.This stipulation holds for the public or private sector and for the field of

education there is no exception. One can immediately see that the expatriate worker can view

this matter with concernbecause it can impact their job security. If the expatriate worker is

unsure that their contract will be renewed at the end of the contracted period it can influence

their feelings of security, commitment, and wellbeing. It has to be taken into account that the

expatriate has uprooted himself from his country, sold his car, and if he/she owned a house put it

up or sale or rent; all for a three year contract that may or may not be renewed for another three

years. The contract may be renewed for another three years. After that,special appeal would

have tobe made to the Minister of Immigration for another extended period of three years.

One can immediately see that this situation can cause a quandary when dealing with

expatriate teachers and the school system. An experienced expatriate teacher may not want to

give up job security in their home country and sojourn to a country where time limits are placed

on their employment and their job security is in question.This type of situation is more suited and

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more appealing to the younger and less experienced teacher who may not have family

responsibilities of marriage and children.

Another dilemma that seriously impacts the stability in the school system is that the

expatriate teachers may have years of teaching experience and the Bermudian teachers may be

just beginning their career and come to the system right out of college or university. There are

however exceptions to this rule. If the employer can make a case that the expatriate teachers

areserving in key positions and their departure could adversely affect the school then the school

may apply for a further extension. In the case of schools there are certain subject areas where

there are difficulties in finding Bermudian teachers for particular subject areas, mainly, those

subject areas of Mathematics and Science. Then an exception may be granted.

A third factor that can impact expatriate teachers (and other foreign workers) is the fact

that they are not allowed to secure a second job without the express permission of the

immigration department. Further they may not even volunteer their services in areas other than

what they were contracted for, if in volunteering they make it possible that byso doing they

prevent a Bermudian from being employed.

Bermuda is in somewhat of a unique position in regards to teacher retention and teacher

turnover when the focus is on the expatriate teacher. On one hand the country must make

allowances for the employment of its own people and yet still provide some job security for

those workers who have come to the island to provide assistance for the country. These are the

background issues that the government education department or a private school system must

face as they grapple with the issues of teacher turnover within the schools. Just when the

expatriate teacher has begun to adapt to the new environment they may have to leave because of

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governmental regulations. This uncertainty about their future job security not only causesjob

stress but also may reduce commitment to the school system.

One of the privateschools on the island operates a K-12 school. It employs about

50faculty and staff with about 35 of those persons being teachers. About one fourth of the

teachers who are employed in that school are recruited from the United States, Canada, or the

Caribbean. The school relies heavily on recommendations from other superintendents and

telephone interviews in the hiring process. Most recently the personnel committee has begun

using Skype so that the interviewee and interviewers can see each other during the interviewing

process. All expatriate teachersin this school system are hired initially on a three year contract,

without having a face-to-face conversation with the educational superintendent, or personnel

committee. This commitment is made without a visit to the island before accepting

employment.That has been expressed as anexpense that the school feels it cannot afford.The

expatriates have not been introduced or oriented neither to the customs and mores of the people

in the host country; nor have they been oriented to the educational system at the time of hiring.

Most teachers who arrive from overseas come within a week or two of the opening of the new

school year or worse still, after school year has already commenced. In such cases they are

immediately confronted with the normal pressuresthat occur at the beginning of a school year

and the additional socio-cultural challenges. These circumstances often overwhelm the teacher

right from the inception of the process and do not allow for a smooth start. While some

expatriate teachers cope admirably with this problematic start to their Bermudian experience,

others have found it to be a negatively challenging experience.

While the aforementioned scenario is my personal experience at one private, relatively

small school, this scene is similarly played out in the public school system. Every year the

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Ministry of Education in Bermuda hires scores of teachers from various parts of the world to

work in the school system. Too often, expatriate teachers have a chaotic beginning at the onset of

their experience.Coupled with the challenges that have been already mentioned, these teachers

are without personal transportation because Bermuda does not allow them to obtain avehicle

license immediately upon arrival;therefore they must traverse the public bus system or rely on

being picked upprivately by assigned teachers. These teachers must negotiate andcollaborate

with other teachers to find out where essential services such as grocery stores, postoffices, and

banking facilities are. They must find a way to get from place to place to conduct personal

business, while adjusting to a new school environment.

These educators often come from dissimilar cultures and arrive in Bermuda where they

are confronted by a culture that is in many ways unlike their own.The attitudes and behaviors of

the nationals for the most part, differ from their own experience.In the educational circles in

Bermuda discussions are often centered onthe dishearteningattitudes a sizeablenumber of

Bermudian students display toward their education. Many appear passive and disinterested in

learning.Seemingly, school achievement and academic success are not important factors on the

students‘ horizon. They live in a country that is economically stable and has been rated as

number two in the world, just behind Switzerland when it comes to income per capita. Many

students andtheir parents have not had to work hard for anything. They are given what they want

with few strings attached. Some students do not see the importance or the need of getting a first

class education.Some studentswill cheerfully and gleefully telltheir teachers that one day they

will make more money than they do because of what their family owns. And more

importantly,that it will become theirs (student) one day. This greatly impacts the way in which

students relate to school in general and contributes to the students‘ attitudes towards learning and

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teachers, both Bermudian and expatriate. However, most often, it is the expatriate teacher who is

confronted with poor behaviors, careless attitudes, and a lack of seriousness toward learning on

the part of students they teach.

A majority of expatriate teachers have managed to successfully adapt to

thepreviouslymentioned conditions but unfortunately too many leave with a rather negative

feeling about Bermuda and their teaching experience on the island. This really becomes an acute

problem when these teachers leave during the school year,or after teaching for only one or two

years.Suitable and qualified replacements are difficult to find. This affects the quality of

education that the student may receive in the short term while the replacement is being

sought.Research has shown that there is a correlation between teacher turnover and student

achievementColgan,(2004).Gaps in student learningexperience emerge which contribute to

instability and lowers students‘ academic performance. Thousands of dollars are spent in

replacing teachers and unfortunately the replacement may not be as qualified in the subject area

as the previousteacher was. When the expatriate teachers leave the island after only teaching for

a year or two acute problems occur for both the teachers and the employer. It is financiallycostly

and emotionallydraining for both parties.The teacher has had to sell their car, rent or sell their

home, and leave behind family and friends. If they are married the spousemay not be able to

secure work immediately, thereby causing financial constraints. The cost of living in Bermuda is

high;all these factors produce stress in the expatriate worker.

The employer has financial costs also. It has been estimated by one of the private schools

that it takes at least three years for the organization to recover the expenses incurred in securing a

teacher from overseas and settling them on the island.When party, the teacher, or the school

administrators‘experience failure, it is at a financial lossto both the teacher and the organization.

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An additional precipitousfactor that occurs is that parents begin to be

anxiousandapprehensive about their children‘s education. Parents become dissatisfied and the

reputation of the school comes under question when there are numerous teacher turnovers in a

short space of time. This in turn can and does affect the enrolment of the school for subsequent

years. Students do not develop lasting and meaningful relationships that can contribute to the

quality of student learning. The actual motives for the expatriate teachers coming to teaching in

Bermuda falls into question and distrust begins to breed among the nationals and disillusionment

spreads among the expatriate teachers.

Problem Statement

A great deal of research can be obtained concerning the successful socialization of

teachers into the workplace of their own country. However little data can be found that addresses

the expatriate teacher moving from their home country and adjusting to a host country and a

foreign culture while negotiating how to work in the subculture of a new school. The perpetual

practice of expatriate teachers coming to Bermuda for relatively short periods of time and

leaving at the end of one contractual term of three years, or even before the end of that

designated period causes a lack of academic continuity, serious disruptions, and gaps in student

learning. High costs are also associated with the hiring and reparation of expatriate teachers. The

lack of longevity contributes to distrust among the expatriate teachers themselves and among the

Bermudian stakeholders. The parents and students and some administrators have misgivings and

express skepticism about the motives of the foreign teachers and the reasons why they have

come to Bermuda to teach. Many administrators, colleagues,and students often wonder how long

the expatriate teacher will stay. They may openly question, who will benefit more, the students

or the expatriate teacher?

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Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative research study is to examine the perceptions and

experiences of expatriate teachers who teach in Bermuda, in both the public and private school

systems.

Research Questions

Thestudy will be guided by five salient questions:

1. How do the expatriate teachers describe the effect of the Bermuda cultural experiences on

their sojourn in the country?

2. What are the specific factors thatdetermine the success of the expatriate teacher?

3. What are the specific factors that impede the success of the expatriate teachers?

4. What do the expatriate teachers in the study describe as stressors that occurred during

their tenure?

5. What can the Bermuda educational system do to facilitate the longevity and success of

expatriate teachers?

Significance of the Study

It is hoped that this research studywill make a significant contribution to discovering

ways to reduce expatriate teacher attrition whether in public or private education in Bermuda.

While anecdotal information may exist, such information is not formalized into a body of

organized knowledge. The findings could contribute in a very significant way when recruiters

and administrators are seeking to provide overseas teachers to fill the teaching vacancies in their

schools.

The outcomes of the study can give assistance to administrators in understanding the

challenges and measures of success for expatriate teachers. Better success in this area will

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accomplish better stability in the classroom. An improved retention rate among the expatriate

teachers will be a factor in achieving better success rate among students.An additional beneficial

outcome will be more effective orientation programs forbeginning expatriate teachers. There is a

paucity of information on this topic and no documented studies have been reported in the island

of Bermuda where the focus of this research will be conducted. The research that is available

concerns itself primarily with the student-teacher experience overseas, or with the experience of

teachers in higher education. Very little research has been completedor even explored regarding

expatriate teachers in the elementary or high schools. Further the research has been confined to

larger countries such as Australia, Japan, and Singapore. Thus, the K-12 focus will add to the

body of professional knowledge on the subject.

It is hoped that those who recruit expatriate teachers will have research-based

information that will enable them to be more aware of challenges that such teachers encounter

and reveal how to deal with them in a proactive manner. This information may provide a

resource to identify processes to assist administrators and others who recruit teachers from

countries other than Bermuda.The researchwill providewell-identified processes that will

contribute toa better match between teachers with their new assignment in Bermuda. One

proposed outcome from this study will be to outline and recommend a well organized induction

program and create an orientation handbook thatwill assists schools in developing programs for

this vital segment of expatriate teachers in Bermuda. Additionally recruiters can work to resolve

the troubling cultural situations that plague the expatriate teachers. This will lead to a more

stabilized teaching force;and thereby, provide better learning conditions in the classroom, which

in turn will strengthen the school system and benefit the students.

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One meansof achieving more appropriate hiring and induction practices is by developing

policies that will assist in reducing the cost of repatriation and disruptions caused by sudden

departures or brief stays of expatriate teachers. The study will also take into account the

resources, time, and effort that is expanded in finding teachers overseas, the financial expenses

occurred by the employers and the employees, and the learning gap that occurs for the students

when teachers are only present with them there for short periods of time.

This study may generate further development and improvement in cross-cultural

socialization and the successful acculturation process. For the expatriate teacher, this program

will provide information about services and resources that are available to them as teachers. An

introduction to the culture, practices, and traditions and customs of the Bermudian people will

also be provided.

Theoretical Framework

My research was guided by researchers such as Deardorff(2009 and Fantini (2000) who

have contributed theoretical models to enhance the knowledge and visual perception of

intercultural competences to the field of cultural intelligence.Deardorff has stated that

intercultural competence can beaptly describedas thecapacity one has to enhance his or her

knowledge, to examine theirattitudes and behaviors so that they are exposedto andare flexible to

other cultures. She contends that for people to survive in today‘s global populaces people need

not only to understand differences but intercultural competence but need to adjust to working and

social environments that are different from their own.

Fantini (2000) further develops this idea of intercultural competence by articulating that

intercultural competence isnot just being aware of the differences that are a part of multicultural

ism but it is the fundamental and ultimate acceptance of people who are different to one‘s self

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outside of one‘s own culture. It is the ability to interact and interrelate with them in a genuinely

constructive and positive manner that is free from negative and preconceived attitude. He takes

the definition deeper by adding that intercultural competence is the ability to create a synthesis as

it, were, something that is neither ―mine‖(the native) or ―yours: (the expatriate) but something

genuinely new‖.These thoughts of Alvino Fantini and others are summed up in literature used for

training by companies that are involved in cultural awareness studies.

This research is also based on the work of Varhegyi (2008)and Stephanie Nann(2008).

Vera Varhegyi the cofounder of Élan Interculturel, has stated that intercultural transition refers

to a set of concrete phenomena: how we feel, behave, and change when we encounter a new

cultural environment. Out of their field research Varhegyi (2008)and Nann (2008) produced and

submitted a framework model for intercultural competences for the Intercultool Project. Further

their work has defined intercultural competence as having three critical areas:

1. The affective level that deals with ones emotions such as loneliness, stress, and

discomfort and the capacity to observe, interact, and analyze one‘s emotions.

2. The behavioral level that encompasses interaction, communication style, ritual, and

body language. That is the ability to communicate effectively in situations where

communication is carried out in anticipated style and secondly one has the capacity to

develop trust in a novel environment.

3. The cognitive level has a duel focus where the person can make sense of situations by

being aware of biases and stereotypes that may be present and then mobilizing their

former knowledge and relying on what they see. Also on the cognitive level one is aware

of the dynamics of culture and is prepared to decode within a new context regarding

cultural mechanisms.

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The researchers view knowledge in this model as an integration within thecognitive level.

Knowledge is an awareness one has of the dynamics ofother cultures. Knowledge encompasses

the values and the worldview that the expatriate brings to the unknown culture. The expatriate

teachermust be prepared to develop strategies they can use when encountering conflicting values,

of necessity they must observe and decode what is new asthey rely on their own previous

knowledge to move through the stages of intercultural competence.

Researchers such as Ward (2001)would place ―identity‖ in the cognitive level; but

Varhegyi and Nann(2008) contend that identity should not be placed in the cognitive domain.

Theymaintain that identity is inextricablyinvolvedin all levels of intercultural competence. They

propose that identity is actually at the core of intercultural competence. In their view ones

identity is significantly involvedin how the person negotiates threats to their identity with the

new society in the host country. Identity strategies that can be used to conquer both personal and

group identities can be the answer to tackling threatssuch as racism and discrimination.The

expatriate‘s capacity for self-reflection and awareness of self in relation to the new culture is a

needed progression along the continuum to competence.

The framework model (see Figure 1) is based on the field research done by Varhegyi and

Nann for the Intercultool Project (2008). The aim of the project is to develop an assessment tool

that can give feedback to expatriates and other professionals about their capacity to deal with

cultural diverse situations.

Framework model for intercultural competences

CRITICAL AREAS COMPETENCE DEFINITION THEORETICAL BACK-UPS
A – affective level
EMOTIONS Emotion management: Matsumoto: Intercultural
(discomfort,  capacity to cope with stress, Adjustment Potential Scale

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confusion, anxiety and other negative Lazarus, Folkman 1984: Coping,
loneliness, stress, emotions Stress, anxiety
frustration, fear,  capacity to relativise from one‘s Ward psychological adjustment
etc.) emotions to become able to Gudykunst Anxiety – uncertainly
observe, analyse, interact in a management theory
more emotionally neutral state
(not acting on the impulse of
emotions)
B – behavioural level
INTERACTION Being able to communicate in a Ruben Communication
Relatedness situation where the expected styles competence 1976
(comm. efficiency, of communications, Fogel Communication in
Comm, Style, codes/rules/rituals of communication creative/rigid frames
Rituals, may differ between interaction
Body language, partners.
Creating new
relations) Capacity to establish social relations
with new people. Developing trust,
creating a new social network in the
new environment.
C – cognitive level
COGNITION Capacity to make sense of the Kruglanski: need for cognitive
(making sense, situation with an awareness of the closure
Dissonance, built-in psychological biases such as Rokeach: open vs. dogmatic
Stereotypes) categorisation, stereotypes etc. thinking
Being able to build up alternative Need for cognitive consistency
explanations to the first evaluation Tolerance of ambiguity
often based on attribution mistakes. Kolb (1984) Learning style
Mobilising previous knowledge and inventory
relying on observation.
KNOWLEDGE Awareness of the manifestations, Cultural anthropology introductory
About worldviews dynamics and varieties of ―cultures.‖ texts
(values) Being prepared to observe and
Context (legal, decode the new context, relying on
technical, previous knowledge and information
historical, econ., on history, geography, politics,
etc.) sociology, cultural anthropology,
Social organization etc.
(gender, hierarchy,
community, family)

Figure 1.Intercultural model Varhegyi and Nann

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Identity
IDENTYTY Negotiating between different needs Hermans – Theory of diological
(threads to attached to identity: self, dialogicality
collective, personal  recognition of personal identity Camilleri: identity strategies
id, self doubt)  recognition of group identity Cohen-Emerique: identify threats
(Including  handling threats to group in intercultural interaction
PHYSICAL identity (racism, discrimination) Breakwell 1988: identify threats
BASICS)  relational function Pyszczynski, T, Greenberg 2003
 ontological function Terror management theory
Being able to handle unusual Zahama (1988) self shock
physical sensation, exposure to Ting-Toomey: facework in
different foods, smells, climates. intercultural setting
Handling differences in appearance
(one‘s appearance not fitting to the
others‘ etc.)
Figure 1 (cont.).Intercultural model Verheghi and Nann

Varhegyiand Nann(2008) propose that identity is the central element in all intercultural

encounters. A person‘s identity-attitudes, biases, and personality are all components of self

identity. The affective, behavioral,and cognitive levels of the model are critical components that

provide the framework that is needed to successfully maneuver through the process of

interculturalcompetence.

In this sense Deardorff‘s(2009) premise that intercultural competenceoccurs when the

expatriate is open and flexible to change is in keeping with the Varhegyiand Nann‘s

model(2008).The expatriate bringstheir identity–whothey are as a person, their perception of

self,and their knowledge about cultural mechanismsto the intercultural experience.This createsan

interaction between the customs of two varying cultures-the previousexperiences and the new

experiences thatthe expatriate is now acquiring. New skills are created, and as Fantini(2000)

says, a synthesis begins emerging, something that is neither the former nor the present but a

forging of the two cultures, something new has now developed.

This framework shows the critical areas of competence that will be addressed in the study

of expatriates in Bermuda.Each level will be addressed. First there is the affective domain. This

19

area will dealwith the ability of the expatriate teacher to deal with discomfort, stress, sadness,

loneliness, anxiety, and other negative emotions.

On the behavioral level,the expatriate teacher arrives and is unfamiliar with local

customs, common behaviors, and the expected styles of communication. The ability to make

sense of psychological biases, refraining from stereotypes, and mobilizing previous knowledge is

a challenge of cognition and behavior for foreign teachers. The expatriate teachers‘ worldview

and values impact the expatriate‘s adjustment to their new working environment. Internal

conflict occurs while the teacher decodes in this new environment. The ability to communicate

within the expected local vernacular while juggling their knowledge and perceptions of their

developing relationships, and knowledge of the students, challenges the comfort level of the

teacher. The capacity to forge relationships with new people will create new social networks in

the new culture. Lastly, negotiating between threats to one‘s identity, and being aware of

personal biases, being able to handle foods, climate, racial tension, and even threats to group

identity are salient factors in developing intercultural competence.

Delimitations/Limitations of the Study

This study will only focus on expatriate teachers who have come to Bermuda to teach.

While there are literally hundreds of expatriate teachers in Bermuda, only a representative group

will be selected to be a part of the study. It will be a small sampling of about 15persons who

have experienced the stated phenomena. In the context of this study the ability to generalize the

results of the Bermuda experience may not be germane to other jurisdictions.

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Definition ofTerms

Acculturation.This isdefined as the phenomena of sequential psychological changes as a

result of continuous and direct contact between individuals having different

cultures(Berry,2006).

Assimilation.This is when immigrants become absorbed into the native population

through acquisition of cultural values and personal traits of the national culture (Kim, 2001).

Cross-cultural adjustment.This term has been conceptualized as the degree of

comfort,familiarity, and ease that an individual feels toward a new cultural environment

(Takeuchi, Yun, Seokhwa, & Russell,2002). Cross-cultural adjustment, expatriate adjustment, or

simply adjustment, will be usedinterchangeably throughout the paper.

Cultural intelligence.Cultural intelligence is defined as a person‘s ability to function

effectively in situations that are characterized by cultural diversity which is becoming typical of

today‘s global work settings Ang& Van Dyne, (2008)

Culture shock.The anxiety that results from losing familiar signs and symbols of social

intercourse and reflected in culture based adjustment difficulties in functioning satisfactorily in

the host country is defined as culture shock (Pires, Stanton,& Ostenfeld, 2006).

Cultural transitions.This is a movement from a place where the rules are known and

where things feel right and comfortable, to one where nothing seems to make much sense at first.

Expatriate.A person who has citizenship in at least one country but who is living in

another. Most expatriates only stay in the foreign country for a certain period of time..Business

Dictionary

Host country.The primary culture or country where the expatriate is living and working.

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Intercultural competence. A fundamental acceptance of people who are different to

one‘s self outside of one‘s own culture.The ability to interact with them ina genuinely

constructive manner that is free of negative attitude (Fantini, 2000).

Identity theory. A theory which considers how group membership affects an individual‘s

identify and sense of belonging in particular groups.

National. For the purpose of this study, a national is referred to as acitizen ofBermuda

who holds a passport and is entitled to its rights and protection of the country.

Stress tolerance. The ability to engage in goal-oriented activities despite the existence of

pressures such as workload or time pressures.

Successful expatriate experience.To complete an expatriate assignment meeting the

professional objectives of that assignment and the ability to adapt to the host culture.

Ethical Considerations

There are several ethical considerations that may influence this research.The researcher

will not reflect discrimination in any of its forms in the study. The study will be characterized by

openness and honesty. An informed consent form will be requiredfor each participant that will be

a part of the research documentation.A copy of the consent form will be placed in the appendix.

Approval where needed will be sought from the Ministry of Education, and governingschool

boards for private schools. These important stakeholders will know what the study will entail, the

methods that will be used, and the purpose for the study.

The benefits of the study are both professional and personal. Those who participate will

receive feedback on the outcome of the study. The information received will be confidential and

the results reported objectively. Confidentiality will be assured by assigning pseudo names to the

participants. Furthermore, the information will be coded.The participants may feel free to

22

withdraw at any time if they feel uncomfortable with the process. There are no known risks or

vulnerable populations that will be asked to participate in the study. While there will be

purposeful sampling no one will be forced to participate and all will have the opportunity to

volunteer.

Organization of the Study

The introductory chapter of this research project will provide a general background of the

study.A statement of the problem and the purpose statement will be included. Research

questions and the significance of the study will be provided. A rationale for conducting the study

has been given.This chapter willdelineatethe delimitations and limitations of the study and

discuss key terms used throughout the research.The ethical considerations and organization of

the study will be outlined.

Chapter 2will present a review of the literature that has influenced the study. A brief

historical perspective will be undertaken. The literature will inform the theories that govern the

study. Models of social-cultural adaptations will be explored. The chapter will present themes

such as acculturation, culture shock, transformational learning, and a lack of orientation of

expatriate teachers thathas emerged from current literature.

Chapter 3will provide the methodology of the study. It will outline how the research

datawill be collected and the research design of the study. A list of participants and their

characteristics will be presented. It will present a section on data analyses.

Chapter 4will present the findings and results of the study.It will also restate research

questions andpresent the findings and the interpretation of the analysis of the data. Issues of

validity and reliability will be included.

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The fifth and final chapterwill give a summary of the results.Conclusions will be drawn

from the findings and recommendations for further research will be posed. Recommendations to

important stakeholders for best practice will be shared.

Chapter 2

Review of Literature

Introduction

This literature review will examine major theories and provide comparisons and

similarities of previous empirical research. It will facilitate an understanding and provide

syntheses and further interpretation of already known information about the topic under review.

The research will investigate a broad range of topics pertaining to expatriates in the workplace,

inclusive of: (a) biblical perspectives, (b) socialization of humans in society, (c) culture and

culture shock, (d) intercultural competence and adaptation, (e) theories of learning, (f) and

factors that impact success or failure of expatriates.

There has been a steady increase in the magnitude of traveling from country to country as

the trend of globalization has made international travel more commonplace. Employment

opportunities in overseas countries have become more prevalent. Living and working in a

country other than what is considered the home country is now considered a normal part of a

person‘s career development. A professional in the field of business or industry, an educator, a

governmental worker, or a person seeking to better themselves economically or seeking personal

development may take advantage of the opportunity to live and work abroad.

Just as the world has become more assessable to travelers and job opportunities become

more abundant, so has the body of literature become more prolific that examines the way

expatriates encounter and adapt to the nuances of a host culture (Sims &Schrader, 2004;Moseley,

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Reeder,&Armstrong, 2008;Furnham, 2010). A number of researchers, such as Lee and Sukoco

(2008),Brown and Holloway (2008),Armes and Ward (2001) have addressed the adaptation of

expatriates in the business sector, while the successful adaptation of expatriate teachers has

attracted some research from Brislin (1981), Bennett (1986), and Armes and Ward (2001),

Connellan (2000) point out that Hogan and Goodson (1990) suggest a significant factor in the

failure of business expatriates to meet their overseas expectations is their lack of understanding

of the host country‘s culture by the expatriate worker as well as a lack of effort on the part of the

expatriate to adapt to cultural nuances or social patterns of the host country.

The literature review presented in this study has been drawn from a variety of

sources.These include refereed journals, books, dissertations, online journals, and the Internet.

Expatriates in Biblical Settings

While one may think that leaving your home culture and traveling to another is a fairly

recent phenomenon, since Biblical times the custom of leaving your natural home and moving to

a new culture has been in existence. There are numerous recorded instances where persons in the

Bible journeyed from their home and relocated to another country. One such well known biblical

character was Abraham. God called Abraham to leave his family of origin and all that he

treasured and migrate to an unknown country. ―Now the Lord had said to Abram: Get out of

your country, from your family, and from your father‘s house to a land that I will show you‖

(Genesis 12:1).He, along with his wife Sarah, and his nephew, Lot travelled for hundreds of

miles and lived in a new land(Genesis 12:4). It is recorded that Abraham and his nephew Lot

prospered in the new land (Genesis 13:8-10).Lot also began a family and never returned to his

country of origin. He adapted to his city environment and adopted many of the practices and

values of his new environment (Genesis, chapter 19).

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Moses is another example of a well known biblical figure who was an expatriate. His

parents, Jochebed and Amram had been transplanted from their homeland to a foreign land.

Their son, Moses, though born in Egypt, was not considered an Egyptian (this is similar to many

immigration laws today) and was in grave danger as were all infant Hebrew boys who were

targeted to be put to death. Moses was hidden on the Nile River by his mother as a baby but

found by the king‘s daughter. The biblical record indicates that she claimed him as her son but he

continued to live with a Hebrew family (Exodus 2:7-9) throughout his childhood.About the age

of 12he was taken to the royal palace to live (Exodus 2:10). Although having lived in Egypt all

of his life, and now living in the palace, Moses did not embrace all the customs, traditions, or

values of Egypt even though he lived in the king‘s palace where he received the highest civil and

military training in preparation to be the successor on Pharaoh‘s throne(White,1939). Yet, when

he witnessed an Egyptian mistreating a Hebrew man,whom Moses considered to be his people,

he killed him(Exodus 2:11-12).

He escaped to the country of Midan where he lived, worked, married, and had children.

Upon the birth of his son Gresham he declared, ―I have been a foreigner in a foreign land‖

(Exodus 3:22). Remaining in Midan for a total of 40years he tended sheep until God revealed to

him that it was time to return to Egypt, his original home (Exodus 3:10; Hebrews 11:24-

26;White, 1939).Following God‘s leading Moses became a phenomenal servant leader and led

the exiled Israelites successfully from Egypt to the borders of Canaan.

Paul, a prominent Jew mentioned in the New Testament, fits the description of an

expatriate. He traveled to many countries such as Macedonia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Cilicia to

preach and teach the gospel of Christ. On another journey he travelled to Rome, Italy and

remained there for two years (Acts 13:2).He continued preaching the gospel and lived for short

26

periods of time in places such as Greece and other countries in Asia. While in Corinth, Paul

became acquainted with Aquila and his wife. ―Because he was tentmaker as they were, he

stayed and worked with this couple...‖(Acts 18:1-3).These trips commonly known as missionary

journeys are recorded in the Bible and are the names of many of the books in the in the New

Testament, such as Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, etc. These are cities in whichPaul

lived and worked but he wrote letters known as epistles to the churches in these places.

Not only did men have the experience of expatriation but the Bible records the journey of

two women who sojourned from one country to another. The story is recounted in the book of

Ruth. Elimelech and Naomi, his wife, traveled from Bethlehem, their home country, with their

two sons to the country of Moab. The family made the trip because of a famine in their homeland

and became resident foreigners of Moab. The family remained there until Naomi‘s husband,

Elimelech died. The sons also married women from that country and continued to live there until

they also died.

Then Naomi, widowed and childless, decided to return to her home country of Bethlehem

in Judea(now Israel). Her daughters-in-law, Ruth and Orpah, desirous of remaining with their

mother-in-law, began the journey with her. During the journey Orpah turned back at the urging

of her mother in law. Ruth, however would not be persuaded. She travelled to Bethlehem with

her mother-in-law and then became a foreigner in Naomi‘s homeland. She later married Boaz

and settled in his country (Ruth 4:13).

In today‘s common vernacular the previouslymentioned individuals and other persons in

the Bible such as Joseph, Esther, Mordecai, and Daniel would be known as expatriates. They

served with distinction in a country other than their homeland. Crossing physical and cultural

barriers, they sojourned from the country of their birth, and became resident foreigners in other

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distinctivecultures. These biblical men and women endured the loss of the familiar and

broadened their horizons to embrace a new future. They encountered new meaning and values

and embraced the culture of countries. They lived and worked and brought up their families (if

they had one) with the challenges that come along with a new society.

In each instance these biblical characters attempted to preserve their own culture; yet to a

greater or lesser degree they all assimilated into the culture of the new society. Hendricks (2003)

states the call from God to travel to unfamiliar and unknown countries are a ―call to transmit

meaning-the meaning of life at its deepest level.‖ -

While no known theoretical research has been recorded on these biblical characters, the

researcher can assume that the circumstantialities of culture and culture shock, social and

transformational learning, cross-cultural experiences, and intercultural competences were all

deeply embedded in their human contacts with the host nationals.

Socialization

A great deal of research has been written concerning the successful socialization of

humans. Socialization, defined can be viewed as the conscious and unconscious process whereby

humans learn behavior patterns and norms that enable them to function appropriately in their

environment. It is based on the need to belong and the desire to be accepted (Finsterbusch,

2009). Socialization is really social interaction between people. It is a process of learning and

adapting to the roles of society from both a formal and informal exposure that occurs within an

individual‘s home and within society (Bandura, 1986).

Socialization has also been defined as the process of transmitting values, beliefs, and

culture that is essential to a society‘s survival. It occurs naturally from the earliest days of a

person‘s life. Humans learn what is acceptable and appropriate as they interact with others.

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Bandura (1986) writes that socialization is a learning process and can be formal such as what is

learned in school and what is learned on the job; but socialization can also be informal in terms

of what a person observes and experiences in everyday living. For example, girls are socialized

to the roles of what it means to be daughters, sisters, mothers, aunts, and wives; similarly boys

learn to be sons, brothers, fathers, uncles, and husbands. It is not necessary to take formal classes

to learn how to perform in gender roles and how males and females should act and behave in

their role. People observe and experience what socialization means and what society expects of

male and female roles and begin to fulfill the expectations of the roles from the time they are

children.

Hofstede (1980) addressed the role that socialization plays in culture. He contends that

people rarely adapt the values of those from cultures other than their own by mere observation,

but over time through interaction with various environments such as economic, ecological, and

technological they are more apt to change. He states that it takes a prolonged period of residence

for the expatriate to realize not just differences in culture but the subtle nuances of the host

country.

Socialization is also linked with the adaptation process when an expatriate sojourns to a

different environment or country. This process of adapting to a new culture is similar to what one

experiences when they were being socialized to their home culture. The expatriate becomes

socialized to their new environment as they become comfortable within the host country. They

observe and adopt customs and values of their new environment. Total socialization to a new

environment is not easily attained because socialization in any culture occurs over an expansion

of time. Living, working, socializing, and adopting the habits of the people, singing their songs,

dancing their dances, attending their churches, and observing their holidays are all a part of the

29

socialization process. It is a learning experience that a successful expatriate will willingly engage

in during the process of being acculturated in the host country.

Socialization is highly germane to an expatriate‘s adjustment because it involves

understanding of how organizations function. Newcomers to the culture learn about their jobs

and the new environment through this process. Socialization has also been linked to several

important organizational outcomes. Among these are: job satisfaction (Ashforth, Saks, &Lee,

1998; Major et al., 1995), organizational commitment (Ashford & Taylor, 1990; Ashforth et al.,

1998; Klein & Weaver, 2000), and performance (Ashford & Taylor, 1990).

Culture

Culture is extricably bound to socialization.Finsterbusch (2009) declares culture ―is the

ordinary, everyday objects of living and the daily routines of life that is regularly punctuated by

festivals, celebrations and other special events (p.1). Han and Northoff (2008) put forwardthat

our brains and minds are shaped by the experiences that occur in the context of the culture in

which we develop and live. ―Culture somehow implies that rituals, climate, values and behavior

tie together into a coherent whole‖ (Schein,1994, p.15). We understand ourselves, others and the

environment within which we operate. People are socialized according to their culture-the way

they behave in their own environmental setting. It is based on a country‘s framework of where

and how people fit in the community; it is how one views education, religion, family, and

friends. Culture then is the sum total of all the beliefs, customs, values, traditions, and attitudes

that distinguish one group of people from another.

Culture is the very essence of a people and determines what is important to

them.―Routine and special times are the stuff of culture, for culture is the sum total of all the

elements of one‘s social inheritance‖ (Finsterbusch, 2009, p.1).One can see evidences of a

30

country‘s culture but culture cannot be touched. A person can feel the effect of the culture but it

can‘t be packaged up.

As such encountering a foreign culture, such as expatriates do, is very much like

encountering a secret code. Until you are able to unlock the code, little of what you see or

experience will make much sense. Peter Conrad, (1991) described it this way:

Society has always seemed to me an idea dreamed up by conspirators. The tribe adheres

thanks to shared understandings, which never need to be voiced; it celebrates its

uniqueness by the exchange of private jokes, by perfecting a dialect of signals. I used to

be amazed, before I could understand the language, by the sight of a whole world which

conversed in Portuguese. Everything was unintelligible: I couldn‘t even read the gestures,

and because of their vehemence having come from the land of laconicism, where only

madmen or migrants talked with their hands -- I used to assume that people were

quarreling when they were only being exuberant.

The ability of expatriates to adapt across cultures is regarded as one of the three most

important factors for expatriate performance (Lee &Sikoco, 2010). When expatriates do not

achieve cultural adjustment, they tend to have much more difficulty in adapting to the

environment and are more likely to fail (Caligiuri, 2000). As a result researchers have began

focusing on identifying factors that influence cultural adjustment (Black, Mendenhall &Oddou,

1991).

Culture Shock

When a person is exposed to a culture that is different from what they are accustomed to,

whether voluntarily as a tourist, or as an expatriate worker, it is common to feel somewhat

frustrated, nervous, and overwhelmed. It is what has been termed as culture shock. Over the

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years researchers have tried to refine the definition of the term culture shock, by looking at very

specific psychological factors or facets that make up the experience (Winkelman, 2003; &Xia,

2009). It has been seen as a loss of one‘s culture, a marker of moving from one culture to another

and a resocialization into another culture. There remains no clear definition of the term culture

shock, but the first usage was attributed to the anthropologist Oberg (1960) over 50 years ago

(Ward et al., 2001). Culture shock describes the anxiety of not knowing exactly what to do in a

new culture. It is the process of initial adjustment to an unfamiliar environment.

When an expatriate worker is first exposed to a new country and experiences a feeling of

ambivalence—a feeling of not knowing what to do, how to act, not feeling readily accepted in

the new culture, and experiences a lack of direction, they are experiencing what is known as

culture shock. Lysgaard (1955) proposes a way to deal with culture shock which he calls the U

curve of adjustment. He describes it in the following words:

[We] observed that adjustment as a process over time seems to follow a U-shaped curve:

adjustment is felt to be easy and successful to begin with; then follows a ‗crisis‘ in which

one feels less well adjusted, somewhat lonely and unhappy; finally one begins to feel

better adjusted again, becoming more integrated into the foreign community. (p. 15)

Another researcher, Alfred Adler (1975), has identified four or five stages of adjustment

that persons living and working abroad can expect to encounter. The first stage of initial contact

is the honeymoon stage that is characterized by enthusiasm, expectancy, and exhilaration.

Expatriate workers in this honeymoon stage will demonstrate an eagerness to please and are

fascinated by the newness of the experience. Inevitability misunderstandings begin to mount and

the individual moves along to the second stage that is known as the hostility stage. Many times

this stage is characterized by frustration and anger, judgmental, and sometimes depression. Many

32

times the expatriate feels misunderstood and typically is overwhelmed by the new culture‘s

requirements.

The third stage of adjustment involves that of reintegration and acceptance. The

expatriate begins to relax in the new environment and begins to reach out and make new friends

and find ways to take advantage of the recreational outlets and even change their original

expectations.

The fourth stage continues the process of reintegration toward autonomy and the

increased ability to have a balanced approach and perspective to interpret both the positive and

negative aspects of the former and new culture. Adler (1975) specifies the fifth stage as

reciprocal interdependence. This is where the expatriate has moved to a place of culturality,

where she is comfortable with both cultures.

This sequence of adjustment to a new culture is experienced by just about all persons

who sojourn to new countries. The process has been referred to as a U-curve or a W-curve

because it moves from higher to lower levels or adjustment and then returns to higher levels.

Church(1982) discusses empirical studies in support of the U-curve hypothesis yet there are

studies that refute this theory.

Furnham and Bochner (1986) cite several problems with the U-curve hypothesis. They

consider variables such as loneliness, homesickness, depression, and other attitudes that impact a

person‘s adjustment. Kim(1988) reports the most serious weakness of a U-curve is the inference

that the process is a smooth move along each stage. In reality it is not so and the process can be

awkward and unpredictable.

Every person experiences the world through his or her own culturally influenced values,

assumptions, and beliefs. Therefore when persons encounter another culture their values, beliefs,

33

and assumptions clash with what they are now confronting.The encounter with a new culture

often poses a threat to one‘s way of life. Adler‘s (1975) view is that culture shock is very

significant in the understanding of change, including the changes that come when people move

from one place to another. What he calls ―transitional experiences‖ hold a great potential for

growth and development for all individuals that would naturally include expatriates.

One approach that has emerged in the study of culture shock is the social/learning

behavior model that emphasizes culture-specific knowledge, skills, and assimilation.

Researchers Black and Mendenhall (1991) put forward Bandura‘s (1977) social learning theory

as a way of comprehending the process. Basically, they posit that the degree to which individuals

believe they can succeed in learning another‘s culture influences their willingness to persist in

imitating the other culture behavior. The intensity of what is known as culture shock is not the

same in each individual. Depending on an individual‘s home culture, specific family, and work

situations determines how well or how poorly the expatriate will adjust to the new environment.

Culture shock as it relates to expatriation is a process that affects all people who relocate

to other countries. The changes in food, socializing, climate, transportation, and daily interaction

with people, may have a profound effect on the expatriate worker. The ability of the expatriate

teacher to understand and to master culture of the host country is an important factor in

determining if the teacher will be successful. Furnham (2010) notes,

While the term ‗culture shock‘ may have originated in the academicliterature it very

quickly took root in the popular imagination. Guides on how to mitigate the effects of

culture shock are offered to allsorts of travelers. People recognize it immediately though

they are surprised by it. There are many related definitions but they nearly all convey a

similar meaning. The concepts quoted are: ‗disorientation‘, ‗anxious confusion‘,‗disease‘

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or ‗mental shock‘ or ‗transition shock‘:it is agreed that culture shock is a disorientating

experienceof suddenly finding that the perspectives, behaviors and experienceof an

individual or group, or whole society are not shared by others.

Intercultural Competence

Intercultural competence focuses on a person‘s ability to communicate appropriately and

effectively in intercultural contexts. The importance of effective intercultural competence has

been well recognized in research studies. Hammer, Bennett, &Wiseman (2003) distinguish

between the terms ―intercultural sensitivity‖ and ―intercultural competence‖. They refer to the

first as the ability to discriminate and experience relevant cultural differences and the latter as the

ability to think and act in appropriate ways in the context in cross cultural experiences. They

argue that the expatriate to allow for greater intercultural competence to be experienced must

exercise both of these behaviors.

Bennett (1986, 1993- ) has suggested a theoretical framework for conceptualizing

intercultural sensitivity and intercultural competence that is the well-known Developmental

Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS). It has six stages, which identify issues that may be

important to individuals at various stages of developmental levels. The DMIS as it is commonly

called,was created to give explanation to how people interpret cultural differences. The

underlying assumptions being that the development of intercultural sensitivity moves along a

continuum of stages of personal growth, moving from ethnocentrism-the first three stages which

is one‘s own culture as being central to understanding another‘s culture, to ethno relativism (the

last three) where one‘s own culture is experienced within the contexts of other cultures (Bennett,

1986). He further contends, the more one‘s cultural experiences become sophisticated, the more

one‘s competence in intercultural relationships is strengthened.

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There are data that specifically address the experiences of teachers in higher education,

journeying from their home country and adjusting to a host country and a foreign culture while

negotiating how to work in the subculture of their new temporary home. There are instances

where universities send their faculty abroad on international assignment. Keller (as cited by

Circarello, 2004) states as a result of data her research.Four themes emerged from her study for a

successful sojourn in a foreign country particularly pertaining to expatriate educators: (a) every

educator is not necessarily suited for an overseas assignment one must choose the ―right‖

teacher; (b) after choosing the candidate the teacher should receive in-depth training, this

occurring before they leave their home country; (c) even after the teachers are situated in their

new country and have begun their assignment, they should continued to receive support from the

university; (d) it is critical for universities to maintain open lines of communication with faculty

who are assigned abroad.

Varner&Palmer (2005) argued that the ability to adapt to a host country‘s culture plays a

critical role for an expatriate to have a positive experience.This is also the beginning of

intercultural competence.

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Cross Cultural Adjustment

Cross-cultural adjustment is the state of being at ease, and the familiarity that an

expatriate feels toward their host country as they adjust to their new environment.Firmin,

MacKay,&Firmin(2007) in their study of student teachers who complete their training overseas,

declare that cultural challenges are one of three critical factors that have the greatest impact on

overseas teacher internships. According to Firmin et al.(2007),expatriate teachers need to know

how to be appropriate in their behavior in the classroom and with persons on the street or in

church. Successfully adapting to cultural differences was listed as an important skill to be

mastered.

A number of terms have been used to describe this process of adapting successfully to a

new country and thus a new culture: cross-cultural, acculturation, cultural diversity, cultural

transmission and assimilation are but a few. ―Cultures exist to serve the vital, practical,

requirements of human life‖(Sowell, 2009,p.77). Every society is interwoven with social

differences: both those that are the result of real difference in access to resources and those that

are more the product of people‘s imagination. For nationals and expatriates living together in a

common society calls for intercultural competence on the part of both entities involved. Simply

stated one could say that a level of openness to accept differences of each is needed for

intercultural competence to be possible.

Every expatriate who arrives in a host country experiences a period of adjustment.

Adjustment refers to the process of well being to a life situation. Researchers such as Kamal and

Maruyama (1998) have included a range of outcomes that give a measure adjustment. They

included the work of previous researchers in outlining a comprehensive measure of expatriate

adjustment, including self-awareness and self-esteem (Kamal & Maruyama, 1990), mood states

37

(Stone Feinstein & Ward, 1990), and health status (Wardas cited in Babiker, Cox, & Miller,

1980). Other typical measures of adjustment involve other subjective experiential constructs that

refer to well-being such as anxiety, mood, depression, subjective well-being, satisfaction, and

happiness.

Friedman,Dyke,& Murphy (2009) point out that the most widely cited model of cross-

cultural adjustment is the model developed by Black et al. (1991). It draws on the research on

expatriate adjustment and domestic work adjustments. Black et al. suggest that adjustment

occurs twice: first, prior to the expatriates‘ arrival into the country that is termed anticipatory

adjustment. In this stage it occurs as a function of the training and accuracy of their expectation

and any previous international experience. This adjustment period is further influenced by any

mechanisms or criteria that have been utilized by the organization. Secondly, there are in-country

factors which impact adjustment. These can be determined as individual skills such as relational

and perceptual skills factors, job characteristics organizational socialization, non-work

environment, and spousal and other family members family issues if such factors pertain.

While there is some academic research on cultural differences on international business

and organizational cultural, the expatriates‘ experience is largely impacted by variables that are

specific to a person‘s personality, their abilities, personal history, and the organization(Friedman

et al.,). Phenomenological research which is the description of the experiential meanings as we

live them will be a most appropriate way to capture the richness and descriptive phenomenon as

experienced by the expatriate worker as it will provide the reader an understanding of the lived

experience.

According to Marsumoto, Hirayama & Le Roux,&Brislin (1981) three factors of

adjustment have been identified including (a) having successful relationships with people from

38

other cultures; (b) feeling that interactions are warm, cordial, respectful, and cooperative; and (c)

accomplishing tasks in an effective and efficient manner. Hammer, Gudykunst, & Wiseman

(1978) focused on these factors, and also added the ability to manage psychological stress

effectively. Black and Stephens (1989)

Even so, there is some ambiguity as to what a successful adjustment to the host country

really means. Several models have been put forward. Ward and Kennedy (1999),Gullahorn and

Gullahorn (1960),Oberg (1960), andAdler (1975) all delineate phases of excitement, shock

culture stress, and adaptation. What all the models seem to have in common is the first stage

when there is positive feeling, fascination, excitement, and euphoria about the host country.

Although some models give time lines for the phases there is in fact little indication as to how

long each phase will last and therefore this is absent from most models. Brown and Holloway

point to the work of Furnham and Erdmann (1995) who say it is important to distinguish between

psychological and socio-cultural adjustment. They further state that distinguishing between the

two may have significant implications for those who offer support. As such, some may focus on

the expatriate acquiring skills to assisting in the socio-cultural adjustment while others may need

a course of action that addresses low self esteem or depression.

While most of the research has been advising expatriate teachers to heartily embrace their

new culture, conversely, authors Herman &Bailey (1991) urge a degree of caution in the cultural

exchange process. They quote Briere (1984) and Horowitz (1987) as supporting their argument,

citing that an overly enthusiastic admiration of a foreign culture is as dangerous as a negative

perception regarding a new culture.

Most of the literature corroborates the impact that acculturation has on the entire process.

Acculturation refers to the process of intercultural adaptation. Wichert, (1996 ) noted that Kim‘s

39

early work in 1977 noted that as immigrants moved from one culture to another their values and

behaviors may be maladaptive to the new. Kim also characterizes acculturation as the

phenomena whereby ―sooner or later, immigrants come to understand better the norms and

values, and to adopt salient reference groups of the host society‖. Cross-cultural adaptation

refers to the ―process over time that takes place within individuals who have completed their

primary socialization in one culture and then come into continuous and prolonged firsthand

contact with a new culture (Kim, p.37).(Stenbacka, 2001)

Professional studies and scholarly literature on this important topic is still being

developed. As an increased number of teachers, both experienced and student teachers, venture

overseas, they experience the opportunities that international teaching brings therefore more

research is being produced.

Several theories address the transition between the home culture and the introspective and

transformational journey from known customs, beliefs,values, and traditions to the unknown

waters of a new culture. The process of acculturation of the expatriate will be viewed through the

lenses of social learning, self-efficacy, and transformational learning.

Social learning theory.

Albert Bandura (1977), a leading proponent of the social learning theory explains human

behavior in terms of the mutualinteraction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental

influences. This theory referenced by Ormond (1999) focuses on learning that occurs within a

social context. It considers that people learn from one another and includes concepts such as

modeling, imitation, and observational learning.Bandura, the leading proponent of this theory,

puts forward several principles and provides implications to explain the theory.

40

The primary principles of the social learning theory are: (a) People can learn by observing the

behavior of others and as such by the outcomes of those behaviors. Learning can occur without a

change in behavior. This concept is in direct opposition to the behaviorist view that says for

learning to occur there has to be a permanent change in behavior. Rather, says social theorists

learning may or may not result in a behavior change. (b) Cognition plays a role in learning. And

that awareness and expectations of reinforcement or punishments can have a major result on the

behaviors that people exhibit,and (c) as such the social learning theory serves as a transitional

bridge between the behaviorist‘s theories and the cognitive learning theories.

Bandura (1977) has suggested that the environment reinforces modeling in several ways.

He suggests that imitated behavior in and of itselfleads an observer to reinforcing consequences

and the behavior is learned through modeling and is thereby reinforced.Bandura (1977) has

further proposed that social learning theory can be used to explain cultural differences and it is

incumbent for a new comer in the host culture to become competent in new learning in order to

ensure adjustment in the new environment.

Researchers, Black and Mendenhall (1991), discuss Bandura‘s social learning theory and

put forwardthat learning can occur as a result of modeling and observing other people‘s

behavior. They argue that the extent to which individuals believe they can succeed is significant

to the amount of success they experience. Their willingness to persevere in mirroring ―the other‖

culture impacts and influences their lived experience. Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) contend

that expatriates often learn culturally appropriate behavior through social learning. Further,

Bandura (1986) addressed the topic of social-cultural diffusion and adaptation for people of

different cultures. He noted that there is some pressure to adapt to a new culture and to reshape

behaviors in a diffusion process. There are a range of stages that expatriates experience as they

41

maneuver through the stages of adjustment to a new culture. There are obstacles to a smooth

transitional change of lifestyle and such as being forced to learn a new way and the time it takes

to journey through it is the cross-cultural learning process.

Self-efficacy theory.

Another theory that has meaningful context to this study and is related to the theory of

social learning is the theory of self-efficacy.Theself efficacy theory can be defined as the belief

in one‘s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage perspective

situations. According to Bandura, a person‘s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise

what is known as the self-system. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations

and how we behave in response to different situations. Self-efficacy determines how people feel,

think,and behave toward situations and motivate themselves. A strong sense of self-efficacy

enhances an individual‘s personal well-being.Possessing such a strong sense of efficacy fosters

an optimistic outlook and engenders deep engrossment and interest in activities.

In contrast, says Bandura, those who doubt their capabilities often do not attempt what

they perceive to be difficult tasks. They have low aspirations and a less than robust belief in their

ability to overcome adversity and fall victim to stress and depression.

Bandura (1986) records that there are four major sources of efficacy expectations:(a)

performance accomplishments: the most influential source of efficacy formation, because it

provides the most authentic evidence; (b) vicarious experience: less influential than performance

accomplishments. Although seeing the success of others similar to one‘s self can raise a person‘s

self efficacy; (c) verbal persuasion: although this does not provide authentic evidence, it does

raise favorable logical arguments that may raise self efficacy; (d). emotional arousal: especially

42

in threatening situations, desensitization, and massive exposure treatments may produce some

reduction in avoidance behaviors.

Another study suggests that there is a strong correlation between expatriates‘

effectiveness and how well they adjust their behavior within a host culture. This study of

99expatriates occurred in Europe and was related to the variables of self efficacy and self

monitoring. Results of this particular study indicated that participants with high general self-

efficacy expressed significantly greater degrees of interaction and work adjustment than those

with low or weak self-efficacy(Harrison, Chadwick, & Scales, 1996).

Transformational learning theory.

Another theory that relates to this study of expatriate adaptation and effectiveness is that

of transformational learning. The study of transformational learning emerged with the work of

Jack Mezirow (1994, 1997). Transformational learning is defined as learning that induces more

far-reaching change in the learner than other kinds of learning; especially learning experiences

which shape the learner and produce a significant impact, or paradigm shift, which affects the

learner‘s subsequent experiences (Clark,1993). Transformative learning is concerned with ―how

learners construe, validate, and reformulate themeaning of theirexperience‖ (Cranton, 1994,

p.22).

When a learner is confronted with a new situation and becomes open to doing things a

different way, accepting of new ideas, are less defensive about their own view, and reflective

they are then in a transformational learning mode. Mezirow (1997) also posits that individuals do

not make transformative changes in the way they learn as long as the new material fits

comfortably in their existing frames of reference. The theory specifically asserts that learning

centers upon making meaning of life experiences.

43

Teaching overseas and becoming immersed in diverse cultures is a means of learning

more about one‘s self. The experience of international teaching opens a window for personal

growth and increased professional competence. A theoretical framework known as

transformational learning, as suggested by McKay & Montgomery (1995), Wilson (1993), and

Taylor (1998) explains how a person‘s expectations directly influence the meaning they derive

from their experiences (Cranton, 1994, p.22). Garson (2005) calls it a reduction of one‘s own

ideas, attitudes, and behaviors while maintaining academic integrity. Student teachers seem

more open to incorporate their values, ideas, and beliefs and critically examine the assumptions

on which they were based. This affirms the research that states younger people adapt easier to

change than older persons. Clement and Outlaw (2002) suggest that the overseas internship

experience is a learning process on multiple levels. Students learn about themselves, the culture,

and about teaching.

Mezirow (1997) stated that a frame of reference is the collection of the assumptions

through which we interpret and understand the world we live in. A frame of reference includes

two elements: habits of mind and a point of view. Habits of mind are always affected and

shaped by assumptions which build on cultural, social, educational, and political codes. While, a

specific point of view is originated from habits of mind (Mezirow, 1997). When people begin to

critically reflect and examine their predetermined assumptions and beliefs, they would become

more open, inclusive, reflective, and willing to change (Choy, 2010). However, not every

experience can cause transformation. Effective learning does not follow from a positive

experience unless the learner participates in a reflective process. Thus, according to

Mezirow,critical reflection is central to transformational learning.

Sheila holder's disseration proposal 2.3a

Sheila holder's disseration proposal 2.3a

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