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Statistik
Teil 6 - Statistisches Testen

       Ulrich Schrader
http://info.ulrich-schrader.de
Statistisches Testen
• Situation
   – 2 Populationen aus denen jeweils eine Stichprobe gezogen
     wird. Ein Merkmal X wird in beiden Stichproben
     beobachtet.
• Frage
   – Unterscheidet sich der Erwartungswert des Merkmals in
     den beiden Populationen?
• 2 Hypothesen
   – quot;Die Erwartungswerte unterscheiden sich nicht in den
     beiden Populationen.quot; - Nullhypothese H0
   – quot;Die Erwartungswerte unterscheiden sich in den beiden
     Populationen.quot; - Alternativhypothese H1
z.B. Therapie A

Population
    A                             Stichprobe
                                       A
  EA(X)

              Frage : E A (X)   E B ( X ) oder E A (X)    EB (X )
                                     H 1 oder H 0

              z.B. Unterscheidet sich das erwartete Ergebnis bei
              Therapie A von dem bei Therapie B?
Population
    B                             Stichprobe
                                       B
  EB(X)
             z.B. Therapie B
Entscheidungsmatrix
                                            Es liegt tatsächlich vor

Entscheidung für        H0 – „kein Unterschied“              H1 – „Unterschied“

        H0               richtige Entscheidung falsch negative Entscheidung
„kein Unterschied“                (1 - )               – „Fehler 2. Art“

                              falsch positive
       H1                                                   richtige Entscheidung
                              Entscheidung
  „Unterschied“                                                      (1 - )
                              – „Fehler 1. Art“

  Ein statistischer Test ist eine Entscheidungsregel, welche die Wahrscheinlichkeit für
  einen Fehler 1. Art kleiner als einen vorgegebenen Wert hält und die
  Wahrscheinlichkeit für einen Fehler 2. Art möglichst gering hält.
  • 1- : Signifikanzniveau
  • : Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit
  • 1- : Güte/Mächtigkeit des Tests
Vorgehen beim statistischen Testen
              1. Schritt
• Formulierung der Hypothesen
   – Alternativhypothese und Nullhypothese
• Festlegung der noch zulässigen
  Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit α (Fehler 1. Art)
   – Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Fehlers im Fall der Entscheidung
     für die Alternativhypothese H1)
   – Bestimmt sich aus den möglichen Folgen einer
     Fehlentscheidung
• Auswahl eines geeigneten Tests
      • Fehler 2. Art β möglichst klein bei vorgegebenem Signifikanzniveau
        (1 - α)
        (Möglichst mächtiger Test)
Vorgehen beim statistischen Testen
              2. Schritt
• Annahme (willkürlich)
  – H0 gilt (kein Unterschied)
    (Konservativ: Die neue Therapie macht keinen
    Unterschied)
• Berechnung einer Prüfgröße, deren Verteilung
  bekannt ist, wenn die Annahme H0 erfüllt ist,
  aus den Werten der Stichproben.
Vorgehen beim statistischen Testen
              3. Schritt
• Verwerfen der ursprünglichen (willkürlichen)
  Annahme, H0 soll gelten, wenn der Wert für
  die Prüfgröße gemäß der bekannten
  Verteilung nicht erwartet wird. Dann
  Alternativhypothese H1 annehmen.
• Sonst H0 beibehalten. Konservativer Ansatz.
Statistischer Test
                 Verteilung der Prüfgröße - H0 gilt




                          Werte lassen sich
                        gut durch die Annahme
                            H0 gilt erklären.
             2               1                          2
                          H0 wird beibehalten
  Unerwartete Werte                             Unerwartete Werte
   H0 wird verworfen                            H0 wird verworfen
H1 wird angenommen                              H1 wird angenommen
p-Wert
• Oft als Ergebnis eines statistischen Tests
  angegeben.
• Geringste Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit , deren
  Festlegung mit den beobachteten
  Stichprobenwerten gerade noch zur
  Verwerfung der Nullhypothese geführt hätte.
Beispiel
    IM Rosen, et al. : Prenatal breastfeeding education and breastfeeding outcomes. MCN. The
         American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, Vol. 33, No. 5. (008), pp. 315-319.


•   PURPOSE: To examine the impact of various breastfeeding outcomes of three
    cohorts receiving different methods of prenatal breastfeeding education.
    METHODS: Retrospective cohort design with patients attending a breastfeeding
    education class at an Army medical center. Controls were matched for sponsor rank,
    marital status, and smoking status. One hundred ninety-four mothers who expressed
    intent to breastfeed received breastfeeding education as follows: (a) a class that
    used video demonstration and group teaching by a lactation consultant, (b) a new
    mothers' support group with one-on-one teaching prenatally and weekly meetings
    postpartum, taught by a lactation consultant and a pediatrician, and (c) a control
    group educated at prenatal visits only. Descriptive statistics, chi-square, ANOVA,
    unpaired t test, and logistic regression were used to analyze the data.
•   RESULTS: Women who attended prenatal breastfeeding classes had significantly
    increased breastfeeding at 6 months when compared to controls (p = .01). There
    was no significant difference in rates between types of classes offered (p = .45).
•   CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Prenatal breastfeeding education can influence the amount
    of time women breastfeed. All providers of prenatal care should consider offering
    such classes in order to improve breastfeeding rates.
Tests mit unabhängigen/paarigen
               Stichproben
• Unabhängige Stichproben
   – Beobachtungseinheiten der einen Stichprobe haben
     keinen Beziehung zu Beobachtungseinheiten der anderen
     Stichprobe
   – Indiz: Stichprobenanzahlen unterschiedlich
• Paarige Stichproben
   – Jede Beobachtungseinheit der einen Stichprobe hat genau
     eine korrespondierende Beobachtungseinheit in der
     anderen Stichprobe.
   – Typisch: Vorher/Nachher
     Mutter in der einen, Kind in der anderen Stichprobe
     Zwillinge
   – Notwendig: Stichprobenanzahlen gleich
Paarige Stichproben



Stichprobe A        Stichprobe B
Übersicht über wichtige statistische
               Testverfahren
Merkmal             Prüfgröße        Unabhängige SP         Paarige SP
Quantitativ,        t-verteilt       Student's t-Test für   Student's t-Test für
normalverteilt,                      unabh. SP              paarige SP
ähnl. Streuung
Quantitativ,        standard-        Wilcoxon Rang-Test     Wilcoxon Rang-Test
beliebig verteilt   normalverteilt   für unabh. SP          für paarige SP
Ordinal             standard-        Wilcoxon Rang-Test     Wilcoxon Rang-Test
                    normalverteilt   für unabh. SP          für paarige SP
Nominal             χ2-verteilt      Chi-Quadrat-           Vorzeichentest
(dichotom,                           Vierfeldertest
zweiwertig)
Häufigkeiten
Beispiel
     MY Chang, CH Chen, KF Huang: Effects of music therapy on psychological health of women
    during pregnancy. Journal of clinical nursing, Vol. 17, No. 19. (October 2008), pp. 2580-2587.

•    AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of music therapy on
     stress, anxiety and depression in Taiwanese pregnant women.
•    BACKGROUND: The value of music therapy is slowly being realized by nurses in various clinical
     areas, including obstetrics. Previous studies have demonstrated a high prevalence of psychological
     stress during pregnancy. [...]
•    DESIGN: A randomized experimental study design was developed and implemented.
•    METHODS: Two hundred and thirty-six pregnant women were randomly assigned to music
     therapy (n = 116) and control (n = 120) groups. The music therapy group received two weeks of
     music intervention. The control group received only general prenatal care. Psychological health was
     assessed using three self-report measures: Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), State Scale of the State-
     Trait Anxiety Inventory (S-STAI) and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). RESULTS: In a
     paired t-test, the music therapy group showed significant decrease in PSS, S-STAI and EPDS after
     two weeks. The control group only showed a significant decrease in PSS after two weeks. This
     decrease was not as substantial as in the experimental group. [...]
•    CONCLUSIONS: This controlled trial provides preliminary evidence that two-week music therapy
     during pregnancy provides quantifiable psychological benefits.
•    RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: The findings can be used to encourage pregnant women to use
     this cost-effective method of music in their daily life to reduce their stress, anxiety and depression.
     Further research is needed to test the long-term benefits.
Beispiel
  CL Dennis, et al.: Effect of peer support on prevention of postnatal depression among high risk
    women: multisite randomised controlled trial. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), Vol. 338 (2009)

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of telephone based peer support in the prevention of postnatal
depression.
DESIGN: Multisite randomised controlled trial. SETTING: Seven health regions across Ontario, Canada.
PARTICIPANTS: 701 women in the first two weeks postpartum identified as high risk for postnatal depression
with the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale and randomised with an internet based randomisation service. I
NTERVENTION: Proactive individualised telephone based peer (mother to mother) support, initiated within 48-
72 hours of randomisation, provided by a volunteer recruited from the community who had previously
experienced and recovered from self reported postnatal depression and attended a four hour training session.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Edinburgh postnatal depression scale, structured clinical interview-depression,
state-trait anxiety inventory, UCLA loneliness scale, and use of health services.
RESULTS: After web based screening of 21 470 women, 701 (72%) eligible mothers were recruited. A blinded
research nurse followed up more than 85% by telephone, including 613 at 12 weeks and 600 at 24 weeks
postpartum. At 12 weeks, 14% (40/297) of women in the intervention group and 25% (78/315) in the control
group had an Edinburgh postnatal depression scale score >12 (chi(2)=12.5, P<0.001; number need to treat 8.8,
95% confidence interval 5.9 to 19.6; relative risk reduction 0.46, 95% confidence interval 0.24 to 0.62). [...] Of
the 221 women in the intervention group who received and evaluated their experience of peer support, over
80% were satisfied and would recommend this support to a friend.
CONCLUSION: Telephone based peer support can be effective in preventing postnatal depression among
women at high risk.

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Statistik - Teil 6

  • 1. Statistik Teil 6 - Statistisches Testen Ulrich Schrader http://info.ulrich-schrader.de
  • 2. Statistisches Testen • Situation – 2 Populationen aus denen jeweils eine Stichprobe gezogen wird. Ein Merkmal X wird in beiden Stichproben beobachtet. • Frage – Unterscheidet sich der Erwartungswert des Merkmals in den beiden Populationen? • 2 Hypothesen – quot;Die Erwartungswerte unterscheiden sich nicht in den beiden Populationen.quot; - Nullhypothese H0 – quot;Die Erwartungswerte unterscheiden sich in den beiden Populationen.quot; - Alternativhypothese H1
  • 3. z.B. Therapie A Population A Stichprobe A EA(X) Frage : E A (X) E B ( X ) oder E A (X) EB (X ) H 1 oder H 0 z.B. Unterscheidet sich das erwartete Ergebnis bei Therapie A von dem bei Therapie B? Population B Stichprobe B EB(X) z.B. Therapie B
  • 4. Entscheidungsmatrix Es liegt tatsächlich vor Entscheidung für H0 – „kein Unterschied“ H1 – „Unterschied“ H0 richtige Entscheidung falsch negative Entscheidung „kein Unterschied“ (1 - ) – „Fehler 2. Art“ falsch positive H1 richtige Entscheidung Entscheidung „Unterschied“ (1 - ) – „Fehler 1. Art“ Ein statistischer Test ist eine Entscheidungsregel, welche die Wahrscheinlichkeit für einen Fehler 1. Art kleiner als einen vorgegebenen Wert hält und die Wahrscheinlichkeit für einen Fehler 2. Art möglichst gering hält. • 1- : Signifikanzniveau • : Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit • 1- : Güte/Mächtigkeit des Tests
  • 5. Vorgehen beim statistischen Testen 1. Schritt • Formulierung der Hypothesen – Alternativhypothese und Nullhypothese • Festlegung der noch zulässigen Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit α (Fehler 1. Art) – Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Fehlers im Fall der Entscheidung für die Alternativhypothese H1) – Bestimmt sich aus den möglichen Folgen einer Fehlentscheidung • Auswahl eines geeigneten Tests • Fehler 2. Art β möglichst klein bei vorgegebenem Signifikanzniveau (1 - α) (Möglichst mächtiger Test)
  • 6. Vorgehen beim statistischen Testen 2. Schritt • Annahme (willkürlich) – H0 gilt (kein Unterschied) (Konservativ: Die neue Therapie macht keinen Unterschied) • Berechnung einer Prüfgröße, deren Verteilung bekannt ist, wenn die Annahme H0 erfüllt ist, aus den Werten der Stichproben.
  • 7. Vorgehen beim statistischen Testen 3. Schritt • Verwerfen der ursprünglichen (willkürlichen) Annahme, H0 soll gelten, wenn der Wert für die Prüfgröße gemäß der bekannten Verteilung nicht erwartet wird. Dann Alternativhypothese H1 annehmen. • Sonst H0 beibehalten. Konservativer Ansatz.
  • 8. Statistischer Test Verteilung der Prüfgröße - H0 gilt Werte lassen sich gut durch die Annahme H0 gilt erklären. 2 1 2 H0 wird beibehalten Unerwartete Werte Unerwartete Werte H0 wird verworfen H0 wird verworfen H1 wird angenommen H1 wird angenommen
  • 9. p-Wert • Oft als Ergebnis eines statistischen Tests angegeben. • Geringste Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit , deren Festlegung mit den beobachteten Stichprobenwerten gerade noch zur Verwerfung der Nullhypothese geführt hätte.
  • 10. Beispiel IM Rosen, et al. : Prenatal breastfeeding education and breastfeeding outcomes. MCN. The American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, Vol. 33, No. 5. (008), pp. 315-319. • PURPOSE: To examine the impact of various breastfeeding outcomes of three cohorts receiving different methods of prenatal breastfeeding education. METHODS: Retrospective cohort design with patients attending a breastfeeding education class at an Army medical center. Controls were matched for sponsor rank, marital status, and smoking status. One hundred ninety-four mothers who expressed intent to breastfeed received breastfeeding education as follows: (a) a class that used video demonstration and group teaching by a lactation consultant, (b) a new mothers' support group with one-on-one teaching prenatally and weekly meetings postpartum, taught by a lactation consultant and a pediatrician, and (c) a control group educated at prenatal visits only. Descriptive statistics, chi-square, ANOVA, unpaired t test, and logistic regression were used to analyze the data. • RESULTS: Women who attended prenatal breastfeeding classes had significantly increased breastfeeding at 6 months when compared to controls (p = .01). There was no significant difference in rates between types of classes offered (p = .45). • CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Prenatal breastfeeding education can influence the amount of time women breastfeed. All providers of prenatal care should consider offering such classes in order to improve breastfeeding rates.
  • 11. Tests mit unabhängigen/paarigen Stichproben • Unabhängige Stichproben – Beobachtungseinheiten der einen Stichprobe haben keinen Beziehung zu Beobachtungseinheiten der anderen Stichprobe – Indiz: Stichprobenanzahlen unterschiedlich • Paarige Stichproben – Jede Beobachtungseinheit der einen Stichprobe hat genau eine korrespondierende Beobachtungseinheit in der anderen Stichprobe. – Typisch: Vorher/Nachher Mutter in der einen, Kind in der anderen Stichprobe Zwillinge – Notwendig: Stichprobenanzahlen gleich
  • 13. Übersicht über wichtige statistische Testverfahren Merkmal Prüfgröße Unabhängige SP Paarige SP Quantitativ, t-verteilt Student's t-Test für Student's t-Test für normalverteilt, unabh. SP paarige SP ähnl. Streuung Quantitativ, standard- Wilcoxon Rang-Test Wilcoxon Rang-Test beliebig verteilt normalverteilt für unabh. SP für paarige SP Ordinal standard- Wilcoxon Rang-Test Wilcoxon Rang-Test normalverteilt für unabh. SP für paarige SP Nominal χ2-verteilt Chi-Quadrat- Vorzeichentest (dichotom, Vierfeldertest zweiwertig) Häufigkeiten
  • 14. Beispiel MY Chang, CH Chen, KF Huang: Effects of music therapy on psychological health of women during pregnancy. Journal of clinical nursing, Vol. 17, No. 19. (October 2008), pp. 2580-2587. • AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of music therapy on stress, anxiety and depression in Taiwanese pregnant women. • BACKGROUND: The value of music therapy is slowly being realized by nurses in various clinical areas, including obstetrics. Previous studies have demonstrated a high prevalence of psychological stress during pregnancy. [...] • DESIGN: A randomized experimental study design was developed and implemented. • METHODS: Two hundred and thirty-six pregnant women were randomly assigned to music therapy (n = 116) and control (n = 120) groups. The music therapy group received two weeks of music intervention. The control group received only general prenatal care. Psychological health was assessed using three self-report measures: Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), State Scale of the State- Trait Anxiety Inventory (S-STAI) and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). RESULTS: In a paired t-test, the music therapy group showed significant decrease in PSS, S-STAI and EPDS after two weeks. The control group only showed a significant decrease in PSS after two weeks. This decrease was not as substantial as in the experimental group. [...] • CONCLUSIONS: This controlled trial provides preliminary evidence that two-week music therapy during pregnancy provides quantifiable psychological benefits. • RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: The findings can be used to encourage pregnant women to use this cost-effective method of music in their daily life to reduce their stress, anxiety and depression. Further research is needed to test the long-term benefits.
  • 15. Beispiel CL Dennis, et al.: Effect of peer support on prevention of postnatal depression among high risk women: multisite randomised controlled trial. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), Vol. 338 (2009) OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of telephone based peer support in the prevention of postnatal depression. DESIGN: Multisite randomised controlled trial. SETTING: Seven health regions across Ontario, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: 701 women in the first two weeks postpartum identified as high risk for postnatal depression with the Edinburgh postnatal depression scale and randomised with an internet based randomisation service. I NTERVENTION: Proactive individualised telephone based peer (mother to mother) support, initiated within 48- 72 hours of randomisation, provided by a volunteer recruited from the community who had previously experienced and recovered from self reported postnatal depression and attended a four hour training session. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Edinburgh postnatal depression scale, structured clinical interview-depression, state-trait anxiety inventory, UCLA loneliness scale, and use of health services. RESULTS: After web based screening of 21 470 women, 701 (72%) eligible mothers were recruited. A blinded research nurse followed up more than 85% by telephone, including 613 at 12 weeks and 600 at 24 weeks postpartum. At 12 weeks, 14% (40/297) of women in the intervention group and 25% (78/315) in the control group had an Edinburgh postnatal depression scale score >12 (chi(2)=12.5, P<0.001; number need to treat 8.8, 95% confidence interval 5.9 to 19.6; relative risk reduction 0.46, 95% confidence interval 0.24 to 0.62). [...] Of the 221 women in the intervention group who received and evaluated their experience of peer support, over 80% were satisfied and would recommend this support to a friend. CONCLUSION: Telephone based peer support can be effective in preventing postnatal depression among women at high risk.