1. Sacred, but Not Surveyed: Nineteenth-Century Surveys of Palestine
Author(s): Haim Goren
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Imago Mundi, Vol. 54 (2002), pp. 87-110
Published by: Imago Mundi, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1151507 .
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2. Sacred, But Not Surveyed: Nineteenth-Century Surveys
of Palestine
HAIM GOREN
ABSTRACT:Nineteenth-century Palestine mapping projects based on systematic land surveying reached a
peak with the Ordnance Survey of Western Palestine between 1871 and 1877, conducted on behalf of the
Palestine Exploration Fund by officers of the British Royal Engineering Corps. Various other nineteenth-
century proposals for an organized survey of the country-some of which bore partial results while others
were never implemented-are also presented. The surveying of one region, Mesopotamia, during the 1830s
and 1840s, forms the basis for the discussion of the reasons for the relative lateness of the topographical
survey. The sacredness of the region seems not to have been a sufficiently convincing motive for
entrepreneurs to organize and finance such a survey. The main reason for the delay in mapping the country
as a whole was that it was not especially important, either strategically or geo-politically, for the European
nations engaged in the international struggles in the Middle East until the last quarter of the nineteenth
century.
KEYWORDS: Palestine, Holy Land, Mesopotamia, geo-religion, cartography, routes to India, Ordnance
Survey, Palestine Exploration Fund, Survey of Western Palestine, Francis Rauford Chesney, August Plarr,
Ernest Renan, Edward Robinson, Carl Sandreczki, Felicien de Saulcy, John Washington, Charles W. Wilson.
At the start of the nineteenth century, cartogra- of the entire country-'from Dan to Beer Sheba'-
phers wanting to compile a map of Palestine and did not appear before the 1870s.2
the surrounding countries were obliged to rely on An enduring element in the historical develop-
maps created from a few widely scattered and ment of Palestine has been its religious importance.
inaccurate geodetic measurements. The early maps Many centuries of European biblical scholarship
of Palestine, including those produced by Jean resulted in the accumulation of a wealth of
Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville (1697-1782) and Christian-inspired interest in the Holy Land. The
his followers were unsatisfactory, mainly because
area of biblical Palestine constituted a place where
they had to use measurements that were too few,
history and development were inspired and guided
sporadic and inaccurate (Fig. 1).1 Cartographers
by its sacredness.'Geo-religious' perception
wanting to compile maps of the country were
inspired research of some regions, such as the
obliged to rely mainly on historical sources and
travellers' descriptions. As the century progressed, Dead Sea and the Jordan valley; certain sites, such
however, the volume of material based on rela- as Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Nazareth; and specific
tively reliable and accurate measurement began to subjects, such as biblical wildlife and the inhabitants
increase. Even so, a complete trigonometric survey of Palestine as descendants of the ancient residents
. Dr Haim Goren, Tel-Hai Academic College, Upper Galilee 12210 Israel; The Leon Recanati Institute for
Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel. Tel. (972) 54 6938665; and (972)
54 369196. Fax (972) 4 6935625. E-mail: <goren@telhai.ac.il>. ? Imago Mundi, Vol. 54, 2002, 87-110. 87

3. Fig. 1. Jean BaptisteBourguignond'Anville'smap of Palestine,dated 1767 but publishedabout 1771 in Jean Baptiste
Bourguignon A
d'Anville, Complete of Ancient
Body Geography (London,RobertSayer, 1771?). 37.5 X 42.0 cm. The inserted
mapsshow (topleft)the Biblical
tribal (below)the cityof Jerusalem the SecondTemple
territories; in Period;and,on the right,
'PlacesLaiddown by Distancesgiven on a Scalereducedto a Third'. EranLaorCartographic
Collection, 36. (Reproduced
No.
with permissionfromThe JewishNationaland University Library, HebrewUniversity Jerusalem: 448.)
The of Pal
and guardians of their traditions, customs and way Kitchener (1850-1916)-by then Minister of War
of life.3 and, in the 1870s through the illness of Claude
It is usually assumed that the traditional Eur- Reignier Conder (1848-1910), in command of the
opean interest in Palestine was both the catalyst for, final stages of the Palestine Exploration Fund's
and the major influence on, the organized scientific Ordnance Survey of Western Palestine-was telling
study (including mapping) of the region in the the British Cabinet that he thought that Palestine
modern period. My own view is that the reverse is was of little value, strategically or in any other way,
the case, and that research based on systematic land and that the country had not even a single useful
survey and the comprehensive use of trigonometric port.4
measurement was actually delayed for several Throughout the nineteenth century and into the
decades by the fact that Palestine was deemed of early twentieth, the significance of Palestine rested
insufficient political importance to justify large- solely on its religious tradition. Those who could
scale investment of time or money. The detailed have mounted a large-scale scientific survey
topographical mapping of western Palestine was ignored the region, although numerous European
not a priority for England or any other European individuals, including members of small learned
88 government. Even as late as 1915 Herbert Horatio associations, were willing to embark on projects of

4. survey of France, but given the circumstances of a
military campaign, the shortage of time and the
impossibility of reaching parts of the country, the
measurements that he and his team managed to
make while briefly in Palestine were incomplete.6
In the summer of 1840, a number of English
army officers, drawn from the engineering, infan-
try, artillery and staff corps, were sent to Syria.
They were part of the English army dispatched to
Syria (a term generally used for the area covering
also Palestine, Lebanon and parts of the region east
of the Jordan) in an attempt to end Egyptian rule of
Palestine and Syria and to reinstate the Ottoman
regime. The expeditionary force also included
Austrian troops.7 A small group of Royal Sappers
and Miners under the command of Lieutenant
Fig.2. Jacotin'smap of Galilee (1810). Detail from the Edward Aldrich landed in Beirut in mid-September,
de
Cartetopographique I'Egypte,Sheet 46: Acre, Nazareth,Le
Jourdain (Paris, Commission des monuments d'Egypte to be joined over the next few weeks by officers
1818). 1:100 000. 49.5 x 78.5 cm. EranLaorCartographic from the Royal Engineers, including Major Ralph
Collection, 46. (Reproduced
No. with permissionfromThe Carr Alderson, Lieutenant John Frederick Anthony
Jewish National and University Library, The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem: 2? 53C 8677.)
Symonds and Lieutenant Charles Francis Skyring.
Together, they measured and mapped the fortifica-
more limited scope. The aim in this paper is to tions of several coastal cities in the course of normal
provide an overview of these small-scale survey military surveying expeditions. In March 1841,
attempts during the first half of the nineteenth they visited Jerusalem, which they surveyed for a
draft map of the city on a scale of 1:4 800.8 Their
century, which together laid the foundations for the
first comprehensive survey in the 1870s by the map was in due course engraved by Joseph Wilson
British. To support my argument that Palestine was Lowry and sold by James Wyld (1812-1887), with
an area which attracted mapmakers but never to a the attribution 'copied from the original drawing' of
Aldrich and Symonds (Fig. 3).9
degree sufficient to result in a trigonometric survey
of the whole country, the discussion will turn by The idea of going on to conduct a general survey
of Palestine was raised in a letter from Symonds to
way of contrast (and as a 'negative' example) to the
his father, Admiral Sir William Symonds (1782-
quite different situation of neighbouring Mesopo-
tamia, a region that was surveyed with considerable 1856), Surveyor of the Navy.'1 With the support
investment of effort and resources despite having and assistance of the Foreign Secretary, Lord
no religious significance. Palmerston, surveying began in May 1841. The
survey area was divided into two. Lieutenant
Symonds was responsible for Palestine in the
Early Surveying Projects in Palestine south, and another group of officers-Major
The first topographical measurements in Palestine Charles Rochfort Scott of the Royal Staff, Major
were made by French army surveyors during Richard Wilbraham, of the Seventh Fusiliers, and
Napoleon's campaign in 1799. The atlas published Major Frederick Holt Robe, of the Eighty-seventh
as a result of the trigonometric measurements and Fusiliers-oversaw the work in Syria to the north.
surveys performed in Egypt and Palestine contains Before the survey could be completed, however,
47 map sheets, drawn to a scale of 1:100 000, six of the military mission in Syria was terminated late in
which cover Palestine, between northern Sinai and 1841, and by January 1842 both survey teams were
southern Lebanon (Fig. 2).5 The officer in charge of on their way to duties elsewhere on the British
the French geographer-engineers in Cairo at the Empire.
time of the invasion was Pierre Jacotin (1765- It was a number of years before all the field data,
1827), who was also responsible for publication of drawings and journals compiled by the English
the atlas. He enjoyed an illustrious career as both a officers in Palestine and Syria reached the Board of
surveyor and an administrator of the topographical Ordnance in London. Work on the map was then 89

5. ~: ~ '~ :'"'"~"~. '
"1 .. - I ..
Fig. 3. Edward Aldrich and John F. A. Symonds, Plan of the town and environsof Jerusalem... from the original drawing of the
surveymade in the monthof March1841 ... Engraved by Joseph Wilson Lowry, imprint James Wyld, and published in London
in 1841. Scale: 400 feet to an inch. 79 X 90 cm. Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, No. 939. (Reproduced with permission
from The Jewish National and University Library, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Jer 97.)
coordinated by Rochfort Scott, who managed to metres). Together with its other deficiencies, the
produce a three-sheet map, on a scale of 1:253 440, measurements and the map caused a good deal of
from the uncompleted survey, which was published embarrassment and provoked harsh discussion
in 1846 by John Arrowsmith (1790-1873), as a among Palestine scholars. Despite the error, the
limited edition exclusive to the Foreign Office." American Edward Robinson, probably the leading
The results of the survey were awaited with
Palestine scholar at the time, was not really justified
considerable enthusiasm by the leading Palestine
in rejecting the entire survey out of hand. Even
scholars of the period. The geographer Carl Ritter
Charles W. Wilson, Royal Engineers (1836-1905),
(1779-1859) from Berlin predicted that 'the pub-
who undertook the first Ordnance Survey of
lication of the Admiralty survey of Syria would
Jerusalem in 1864-1865, participated in many
revolutionize the existing state of knowledge, and
would make it necessary to reconstruct the maps of other surveys of the Palestine Exploration Fund
Palestine de novo'.12 Unfortunately, Symonds's and became one of its leading figures, remarked
hypsometrical measurements led to an error in that 'the whole [triangulation] was in too fragmen-
the reported altitude of the Sea of Galilee, which he tary a state for publication'.13 But the fact remains,
concluded was about 328 English feet (100 metres) that the 'Map of Syria' was studied and used for
90 below sea level instead of 612 Parisian feet (199 compiling many of the later maps of Palestine.'4

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published for the Journalof the Royal GeographicalSociety by John
Fig. 4. Heinrich Berghaus, Partof ArabiaPetrxaand Palestine,
91
Murray in London in 1839, showing the route taken by Edward Robinson and Eli Smith in 1838, in their travels through the
unknown western part of the southern desert of Palestine (today the Negev), from Akaba to El Khulil (Hebron). 33 X 19 cm.
(Reproduced with permission from the library of The German Protestant Institute of Archaeology, Jerusalem: H-6).

7. Proposals for Large-Scale Surveying Palestine into writing. He did so in 1848, at the
height of the debate on the relative altitude of the
Edward Robinson surface of the Dead Sea. The fact that this body of
Edward Robinson (1794-1863) set out in 1838 for water was at lower elevation than the Mediterra-
Syria to perform his pioneering exploration, nean had been published for the first time in 1837,
together with Eli Smith (1801-1857), a Presbyter- and in the following decade hypsometric measure-
ian missionary stationed in Beirut. Their studies ments were made all along the Jordan valley.21
and the publication of Biblical Researches mark the These, however, failed to settle conclusively either
beginning of the modern period of scientific the altitudes of the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea
research and survey in Palestine.'5 Robinson had or the gradient of the Jordan River, which flowed
studied in Germany from 1826 to 1830, and that from one to the other. Two of the protagonists were
country became his scientific base. On leaving Robinson in New York and Petermann in Berlin,
Palestine on the completion of his explorations, who claimed that there was nothing unusual in the
Robinson travelled to Berlin to write his book slope of the Jordan and added a comparison with
under the aegis of Ritter. The famous geographer the main rivers in the United Kingdom.22 It was
turned to Heinrich Berghaus (1797-1884), one of clear to Robinson that the answer could only be
Berlin's leading cartographers, for a map for achieved through organized, systematic measure-
Robinson's book. Berghaus had already published ment. Accordingly, he called on the governments of
a map of Palestine in 1835 and realized just how 'England, or France, or Prussia, to dispatch an
little information about the country was available. expedition for this purpose' and he 'hoped that the
Many of the maps in the coming years were based Geographical Societies . . . will not let the matter
mainly on his work (Figs 4 and 5).16 He started rest until it shall be fully accomplished.'23
work on a map for Robinson but soon left the task
to the young Heinrich Kiepert (1818-1899), who August Plarr
thus embarked on what was to become a long-term
When Petermann became editor of Mittheilungen,
involvement in the mapping of Palestine (Fig. 6).'7
he took advantage of the opportunity the new
Early in 1839 Berghaus wrote to Captain John
journal presented to promote geographical explora-
Washington, Secretary of the Royal Geographical tion throughout the world. In 1858 he published a
Society, saying that he was 'of the opinion that it call from August Plarr, a geographer and teacher
would be a great loss for geography, were the
from Heidelberg, who had just returned from a tour
materials collected by Messrs. Robinson and Smith
of Palestine and who had produced an article on the
not to be used for the construction of a map on a
geography of the Gilead, a mountainous region to
large scale'.18 the east of the Jordan.24 Plarr envisaged an
Although there were further calls for an orderly
international Christian campaign to conduct a
survey of Palestine, no project reached fruition.
detailed triangulation of Palestine:
Various proposals were published, mainly in the
two leading journals of explorative geography: the It would only be worthy of the Geography Institutein
Gotha to call for a scientificinitiativethat will be of
Journal of the Royal Geographical Societyof Londonand universalinterestto all Christianity. Yourjournal,the
Mittheilungen aus JustusPerthes'geographischer Anstalt Mittheilungen, can publish a call to all Christian
iiber wichtigeneue Erforschungen dem Gesammtge-
aus governments to set up an international committee
that will set itself the goal of conducting,with all the
biete der Geographie.l9The proposals all reflected an scientific,artistic,and financialaid, not only a study,
opinion that had already been expressed by the but also a complete triangulationand detailed mea-
French scientist and traveller, Constantin-Francois surementof all regionsof Palestine.25
Chasseboeuf de Volney (1757-1820). Recognizing Plarr's proposal included an exact definition of
the ineffectiveness of the haphazard collection of the area to be surveyed, from Aqaba Bay in the
data by a lone traveller working for a short time south to the northern corner of the Lebanon valley
wherever he happened to be, de Volney had called in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the west and
for interdisciplinary groups that were government longitude 55? from Ferro (equivalent to 37? from
directed and financed and that would address Greenwich) in the east. This means he was
specific issues.20 suggesting a survey that would encompass not
Robinson seems to have been the first to put the only Palestine but also large parts of Transjordan,
92 idea of organizing a team to carry out a survey of the part of Syria lying to the south and west of

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The Jewish National and University Library, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Pal 678.) 93

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10. Damascus, and almost the whole of Lebanon.26 joined by Washington, accompanied by three
Plarr considered it beyond the power of a single friends, including the botanist (later the director
nation to undertake such a project. Rather, an of Kew Gardens) Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-
international delegation was required which would 1911). For the next six weeks, the group, 'provided
include surveyors and researchers from Russia, with three chronometers, a theodolite, [and] six
England, France, Prussia and Austria, since it was barometers', would disembark to make surveying
'only by means of great combined efforts that trips to various places in Palestine, Syria and
Christianity will come really to know the land [of Lebanon. On one such occasion, they 'visited and
the Holy Scriptures]'.27 fixed [the position of] the Cedars of Lebanon'.30
Plarr was also conscious of the need to overcome The team finished work on the Palestinian coast in
various conflicts of interest among the different July 1861.3'
groups operating in the area if Ottoman opposition The survey resulted in numerous maps, some of
was to be overcome. The lingua franca of such a them named after the various surveyors who, as
delegation, he advised, should be French, in which indicated in the captions on the maps, had worked
the surveyors from other countries could be 'under the direction of Commander A. L. Mansell'.
expected to be fluent. In an appendix to Plarr's The map of the Palestinian coast, entitled 'Ras en-
proposal, Petermann-who was also making a Nakuirato El Arish', measuring 63 X 96 centimetres
considerable contribution to the cartography of and drawn to a scale of 1:220 000, was published
Palestine-expressed the hope that the powers for the first time in 1862. Another map, on the scale
would unite around a project of this type.28 of 1:45 400 and measuring 47 X 64 centimetres,
portrayed the bay of Acre, the only natural
John Washington
anchorage along the Palestinian shore. A number
Rear-Admiral John Washington (1800-1863), who of larger-scale maps were devoted to modern and
had been Secretary of the Royal Geographical historical coastal cities such as Tyre, Acre, Haifa,
Society from 1836 to 1841, was appointed in Cesarea and Jaffa (Fig. 7).32 Both the maps and the
1845 by Francis Beaufort, Hydrographer of the sailing instructions which Mansell had written in
Royal Navy, as the 'commissioner for inquiring into 1864 were still being used, with the necessary
the state of the rivers, shores, and harbours of the additions and corrections, until after the First World
United Kingdom'. When Washington replaced War.33
Beaufort as Chief Hydrographer to the Admiralty Firsthand experience in Syria and Palestine
ten years later, he expanded the navy's worldwide seems to have led Washington to give some
programme of coastal surveys.29 One project he thought to the need for a systematic survey. I am
initiated was the mapping of the eastern shores of inclined to think that, being of a practical turn of
the Mediterranean in 1856 and 1857 as part of the mind, he would have appreciated the difficulties of
activity that followed the Crimean War and organizing and financing an international survey of
preceded the digging of the Suez Canal, which such a large area and that he decided instead on a
started in April 1859. Under the leadership of more feasible course, by using the Royal Geogra-
Commander Arthur Lukis Mansell (1815-1890), phical Society to disseminate his ideas. From 1855 it
the survey moved eastward along the coast of Egypt had become customary for the President's annual
from the mouth of the Damieta. Mansell, then speech, enumerating the activities and achieve-
commander of the H.M.S. Tartarus,measured the ments of the previous year (especially those relating
coasts of Sinai and Egypt and the harbour of to exploration), to be published in the Society's
Alexandria. In 1858 his team went on to survey Proceedings.Since this included a note referring to
the Gulf of Iskenderun in southeastern Turkey, the 'admiralty surveys' and reports, Washington
before working their way southward along the was able to put his reservations in writing.34 He set
eastern coast of the Mediterranean. out in the Proceedings lengthy list of 'subjects that
a
In 1860, with their new ship, H.M.S. Firefly,they warrant attention and research in Palestine' and
began to survey the coasts of Syria, Lebanon and, listed the 'geographical problems that require
eventually, Palestine. This project required a bigger accurate solution'. He said nothing about any
than usual team with a large number of surveyors general survey, however. Washington was also
and a scientist (usually from the field of natural trying to find a way of coordinating the research
history). Late in September 1860, Mansell was being carried out independently by 'many of our 95

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countrymen' on their visits to the Holy Land. nature of the region in general and the specific
Claiming that their work was worth so little only themes and sites he considered worth mapping in
because of lack of guidance, he suggested that detail: the 'identification of sites of Biblical history';
someone should direct the travellers "toone or two the 'examination of sites with reference to some
special points in accordance with the part of the special object, as the deciding between two con-
coast with which they decided to begin' their flicting traditions'; 'manners and customs of the
journey. The travellers would also benefit, he said. current local population that may help elucidate
from material assistance with a view to encouraging biblical history'; 'natural production that may
systematic research. illuminate Biblical descriptions'; linguistic matters,
Out of ten topics Washington listed in the 'traces of ancient names' and 'as far as possible,
Proceedings worthy of research in Palestine, the
as correct and uniform orthography'; 'careful draw-
first two-the 'accurate determination of the posi- ings of building and copies of inscriptions'; 'traces of
tion of important cities, mountains, &c.' and the volcanic or other remarkable geological phenom-
'production of exact topographical plans of places of ena'; and the 'examination and comparison of the
interest'-leave no doubt as to his ultimate inten- tombs throughout Syria and Palestine'.
tion: the achievement of a topographical survey. To explain and clarify his goals, Washington
This interpretation is supported by the other items went on to elaborate his proposals with several
96 on Washington's list, which reflect the unique examples suggesting ways of recording all material

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from isurveys in 1831 1852. from those made in 1841
his ow
by Majors ROBE antd ROCIFORT SCOTT, Ieut.SYMO'DS and other
officers of her Majesty's Corps o Royal Engineers ; and from
tlhe "Results of the Researches made by LYNCH, . OBINSON.
WILSON. BUrRCKHARDHT. SEETZEN &c.
1858.
GcOTILk:JUSTUSPEIRTIS.
SC ,LE S.
of
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39
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Plate 4. Carel Willem [Charles William] Meredith van de Velde's Map of the Holy Land (1858). The map was based on a survey of 1841
1851 and 1852, and published in eight sections, each measuring 34 X 63 cm. Scale 1:315 000. (Reproduced with permission from T
Library, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Pal 645.) See page 98.

13. CAITF, GEOLO(GI d~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~W
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Plate 5. Louis Latert, Cartegeologiquedes bordsde la MerMorte.Dresseesous les auspicesde Mr le duc de Luynespar Mr LouisLartet,geologuede I'
geologiquede la MerMortede la Palestineet de l'ldumee . . ., (Paris, Arthus Bertand, 1878), plate 2. Scale 1:300 000. 46 X 27 cm. (Photograph s

14. relating to Palestine. He also described how little William Smith had started work on his diction-
information was available, even in the late 1850s, ary in 1857 and when the last volume of his
on the exact longitude, latitude and altitude of Dictionary of the Bible was published in 1863, it
places. Figures for Jerusalem, he said, 'vary included a review of the newest discoveries in
between 2200 and 2600 feet above the level of biblical geography.38 Among his collaborators on
the Mediterranean' and those for Shechem (Nabu- the dictionary was George Grove (1820-1900),
lus) 'from 1460 to 1860 feet'. He concluded with a who is remembered to this day as editor of Grove's
call for all interested parties to send him notes Dictionaryof Musicand Musicians.39Grove and Smith
concerning the questions or topics they wanted to had met through a mutual friend, Arthur Penrhyn
be examined by those in the field. Stanley (1815-1881), Dean of Westminster, who
The list of researchers cited by Washington as shared their interest in Palestinian research.40
having 'done much for the geography of the Holy Grove's deep interest in the study of Palestine and
Land' (among whom he included Ulrich Jasper his involvement in Smith's dictionary were likely to
Seetzen, Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, Edward have been behind Grove's decision to establish in
Robinson, William Francis Lynch, Charles Roch- 1865 the Palestine Exploration Fund. Although the
fort-Scott, John Frederick Anthony Symonds, John prospectus prepared by the sub-committee set up at
Leech Porter, Charles William Meredith van de the Fund's foundation meeting on 12 May 1865
Velde, Stanley Lane-Poole, Cyril Graham, Arthur makes no mention of Washington's list, it is scarcely
Penrhyn Stanley), suggests that he was hardly coincidental that the two are remarkably similar in
aware of contemporary French and German writing their goals.41
on the Holy Land.35 Yet we know Washington was
Further Calls for a Survey of Palestine
well acquainted with August Petermann, who had
spent eight years in London before returning to The 1840s and 1850s were the years in which
Germany in 1855 and who had left behind him a trigonometric surveying was everywhere becoming
reputation as a skilled cartographer and organizer the accepted basis for map making and for gaining
of research expeditions. Petermann had written firsthand familiarity with the region in question.
that the 'precise measurements' which would These two decades saw the British, especially,
supply a base to the mapping of Palestine had expand their surveying activity throughout the
been achieved through Mansell's survey, 'thanks to Empire. They also surveyed areas outside their
the English Admiralty and, especially, thanks to the direct control, even outside their sphere of influ-
highly scientific approach of the man who now ence, if they considered such areas to be of strategic
heads the Admiralty measurements Captain importance. Despite its relative proximity to Suez,
Washington'.36 Palestine did not fall into either category; it did not
Washington's text contains a brief but perhaps constitute a factor that would attract either the
revealing paragraph: 'How, too, is that admirable government in London or one of the imperialist
work the "Dictionary of the Bible" (the first volume trading societies to organize and invest in a survey.
of which, ably edited by Dr. Smith, has recently Nor was the British government alone among
appeared) to be completed, unless we, as geogra- European governments in ignoring Palestine.
phers, contribute our share towards its perfec- Even the French government, which sponsored
tion?'37 We may assume that Washington included organized scientific delegations, carried out only
the reference to William Smith's biblical dictionary, sporadic studies in Palestine. It was left to a few
with its implicit reminder of the religious impor- individuals to survey the Holy Land. Some of these,
tance of Palestine, as the only way of attracting who are mentioned below, continued advocating
researchers and financiers to support studies of the the idea of the need for a well-organized, interna-
country. Thus, on familiar terms with the main tional or national survey of Palestine.
figures engaged in Palestinian research in the The Dutch naval officer, Charles William Mer-
English capital and aware of the publication of edith van de Velde (1818-1898), had acquired his
Smith's dictionary and the favourable response it cartographical experience as head of the Dutch
aroused, Washington would have hoped that Royal Hydrographer's Office in Batavia from 1839
heightened scientific and public interest in the to 1841. He made two visits to Palestine, once in the
biblical regions would also help him promote his early 1850s and again in the early 1860s, both
ideas of organizing and focusing this research. prompted by his study of the Holy Scriptures, which 97

15. Ir
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.. fr
41
A*
J41
late. Lieiat Dutch R. N
r:a;ai: i a- atin.!18414:
Wew 18
tit 1802, fram those. mia- i.!,
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1 ' ^
^ . ^ ai l,' a -; *a
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: 'i w:B0B.O i JChtAR SO.RTZEX I .e
, ' S. .
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1858.
-~
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t:'titt't-ft''titS'V0t't:;Xl't~
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^
Fig. 8. Section 1 of Carel Willem [Charles William] Meredith van de Velde's Map of the Holy Land constructed . from his own
.
surveysin 1851 cL 1852, from thosemade in 1841 by MajorsRobeand RochfortScott,Lieut.Symondsand otherofficers Her Majesty's
of
Corps RoyalEngineers; from the Resultsof the Researches
of and madeby Lynch,Robinson,Wilson,Burckhardt, Seetzen The map was
&ec.
engraved by Eberhardt and Stichardt and published in Gotha by Justus Perthes in 1858. 1:315 000. 8 sections (sheets) (see
Plate 4 for Section 5), each 34 x 63. Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, No. 778. (Reproduced with permission from The
Jewish National and University Library,The Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Pal 645.)
had made him 'deeply feel the want of a correct and tent assistants, to make what may be termed a
sufficiently detailed map of the land to which they complete triangular survey; nor was I aware of any
preeminently call our attention'.42 He made use of individual who, thrown on his own resources, had
all existing maps based on modern surveying of ever accomplished such a work.'44
Palestine, added to them measurements taken with In France, Louis Felicien Joseph Caignart, Baron
relatively primitive methods (such as estimating de Saulcy (1807-1880), also called upon his
distances), and produced what is generally accepted government to organize a delegation to Palestine,
to have been the best map of the Holy Land before mainly due to his interest in archaeological ruins.
the Survey of Western Palestine was completed De Saulcy, an army officer and a keen numismatist
more than twenty years later. Van de Velde's map and archaeologist, had toured and studied Palestine
was published in English, German, Dutch and three times during the 1850s and 1860s.45 One of
French. It comprises eight sections, or sheets, the participants in the delegation was the army
drawn to a scale of 1:315 000 and including maps cartographer Captain Charles Gelis, who was
of Jerusalem (1:10 000) and environs (1:250 000) responsible for the maps in de Saulcy's book,
(Fig. 8 and Plate 4).43 The opening comments in the including the one of the Dead Sea area (Fig. 9).46
memoir which accompanies the map are explicit: 'it The French government did initiate some survey-
lay beyond my power to set off for Syria with the ing, mainly during the first half of the 1860s when
98 necessary instruments, and, with the aid of compe- the French army intervened to save the Christian

16. .'ita2i8'c
I
/ | f,,:
I
14w ~ w
wnn.a.man ' A?
' ,'^: A * 'it
-4
* '4,ia
?- d'as
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4,,t*
CarteiteIv en15
S,A1. C :-
d'aprs la Carte
inMitejevtien 1851.
(CPARFELDESA1LC~j
Anciailve do Eeole htechmique
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Q~~~~~~~~-Mi
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iemare de rhintilt daencfre. ;!
1.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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.................. J
Fig. 9. The printed version of the map drawn by Baron de Saulcy in 1851: Esquissedu littoralde la MerMorteet de la Moabitide,
d'apres la Carteineditee,lev6een 1851, par Fel. De Saulcy. Published in Paris by the firm of Thierry Freres in 1852. Scale 0/
0025m to 1000lm (= 1:400 000). 28.5 X 42.5 cm. (Private collection.)
99