1. E uropEan V iEw Volume 5 - Spring 2007
EuropE and ImmIgratIon
Wilfried Martens Editorial: Europe and Immigration •
Yasmeen Abu-Laban North American and European Immigra-
tion Policies: Divergence or Convergence? • Sali Berisha Com-
mentary: Albanian Migration in Europe —Bridge or Barrier?
• Thomas Faist and Andreas Ette Between Autonomy and the
European Union: The Europeanisation of National Policies and
Politics of Immigration • Diane Finley Canadian Immigra-
tion: Building Canada’s Future • Franco Frattini Towards
a Stronger European Immigration Policy • Lawrence Gonzi
Illegal Immigration: A Maltese View • Simon Green The
Challenge of Immigrant Integration in Europe • Jim Kolbe
The Immigration Conundrum: Open Borders or Closed? • Ilkka Laitinen
Frontex and the Border Security of the European Union
• Sandra Lavenex Which European Asylum System?
Security versus Human Rights Considerations in the Europeanisation
Process • Olena Malynovska Migration in Ukraine: Challenge or Chance?
• Brunson McKinley Partnerships in Migration: Engaging Business
and Civil Society in a ‘Whole of Society’ Approach • Rinus Penninx
Europe’s Migration Dilemma: A Political Assessment •
Iurie Rosca The Economic Impact of Immigrants on their Home
Countries: The Example of Moldova • Nicolas Sarkozy Im-
migration: A Crucial Challenge for the Twenty-First Century •
Wolfgang Schäuble New Paths for European Migration Policy •
Ioannis Varvitsiotis Is a Common European Immigration Policy Possible? •
Jakob von Weizsäcker What Should a Cautious Immigration Policy
Look Like? • David Willetts Europe: Is Decline Our Demographic Destiny?
• Zhanna Zayonchkovskaya Russia’s Search for a New Migra-
tion Policy • Gottfried Zürcher EU Enlargement and Immigration
A Journal of the Forum for European Studies

3. EUROPEAN VIEW
European View is a journal of the Forum for European Studies, published by the European People’s Party.
European View is a biannual publication that tackles the entire spectrum of Europe’s political, economic, social
and cultural developments. European View is an open forum for academics, experts and decision-makers across
Europe to debate and exchange views and ideas.
EDITORIAL BOARD
Chairman:
Wilfried Martens, President of the European People’s Party, former Prime Minister, Belgium
Carl Bildt, Foreign Minister, Sweden
Elmar Brok, Member of the European Parliament, Germany
John Bruton, former Prime Minister, Ireland
Mário David, Member of Parliament, Portugal
Ingo Friedrich, Chairman of the Forum for European Studies, Germany
Vicente Martínez-Pujalte López, Member of Parliament, Spain
Chris Patten, former Member of the European Commission, United Kingdom
Jan Petersen, former Foreign Minister, Norway
Hans-Gert Pöttering, President of the European Parliament, Germany
Alexander Stubb, Member of the European Parliament, Finland
József Szájer, Vice-Chairman of the EPP-ED Group in the European Parliament, Hungary
Andrej Umek, former Minister for Science and Technology, Slovenia
Per Unckel, former Minister of Education and Science, Sweden
Yannis Valinakis, Deputy Foreign Minister, Greece
ADVISORY BOARD
Antonio López-Istúriz, Christian Kremer, Luc Vandeputte, Kostas Sasmatzoglou, Ingrid Goossens, Guy
Volckaert
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Tomi Huhtanen
Assistant Editors:
Galina Fomenchenko, Mélanie Dursin, Marvin DuBois, Maureen Epp, Richard Ratzlaff, Jennifer Edwards,
Eduard Friesen, Nicholas Alexandris
For editorial inquiries please contact:
European View
Editor-in-Chief
10, rue du Commerce - 1000 Brussels
email: ev@epp.eu
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The Forum for European Studies is a think-tank dedicated to Christian Democrat and like-minded political
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European View and its publishers assume no responsibility for facts or opinions expressed in this publication.
Articles are subject to editing and final approval by the Editorial Board.
This publication is partly funded by the European Parliament.
2
European View

4. cONtENts
• Editorial: Europe and Immigration .............................................................................................................................................................5
Wilfried Martens
• North American and European Immigration Policies: Divergence or Convergence? ............................................9
Yasmeen Abu-Laban
• Commentary: Albanian Migration in Europe—Bridge or Barrier? .............................................................................. 17
sali Berisha
• Between Autonomy and the European Union: The Europeanisation of National
Policies and Politics of Immigration ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
Thomas Faist and Andreas Ette
• Canadian Immigration: Building Canada’s Future .................................................................................................................... 27
Diane Finley
• Towards a Stronger European Immigration Policy ....................................................................................................................... 35
Franco Frattini
• Illegal Immigration: A Maltese View....................................................................................................................................................... 41
Lawrence Gonzi
• The Challenge of Immigrant Integration in Europe .................................................................................................................... 47
simon Green
• The Immigration Conundrum: Open Borders or Closed? ....................................................................................................... 53
Jim Kolbe
• Frontex and the Border Security of the European Union ........................................................................................................ 57
Ilkka Laitinen
• Which European Asylum System? Security versus Human Rights Considerations
in the Europeanisation Process ...................................................................................................................................................................... 63
sandra Lavenex
• Migration in Ukraine: Challenge or Chance? .................................................................................................................................. 71
Olena Malynovska
• Partnerships in Migration: Engaging Business and Civil Society
in a ‘Whole of Society’ Approach ................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Brunson McKinley
• Europe’s Migration Dilemma: A Political Assessment ................................................................................................................ 87
Rinus Penninx
3
Volume 5 - Spring 2007

5. • The Economic Impact of Immigrants on their Home Countries: The Example of Moldova ....................... 95
Iurie Rosca
• Immigration: A Crucial Challenge for the Twenty-First Century ................................................................................. 101
Nicolas sarkozy
• New Paths for European Migration Policy....................................................................................................................................... 109
Wolfgang schäuble
• Is a Common European Immigration Policy Possible? .......................................................................................................... 115
Ioannis Varvitsiotis
• What Should a Cautious Immigration Policy Look Like? ................................................................................................... 121
Jakob von Weizsäcker
• Europe: Is Decline Our Demographic Destiny? ............................................................................................................................ 129
David Willetts
• Russia’s Search for a New Migration Policy ..................................................................................................................................... 137
Zhanna Zayonchkovskaya
• EU Enlargement and Immigration........................................................................................................................................................ 147
Gottfried Zürcher
4
European View

6. Wilfried Martens
Editorial
Europe and Immigration
By Wilfried Martens
Throughout history, immigration and their culture. This has enabled
has altered the development of not immigrants to maintain their language
only Europe but also the rest of the and culture. Stronger ties with their
developed world. The basic motivation country of origin have affected the way
of immigration—to seek better life they integrate to their new homeland
conditions and a prosperous future— and its culture. Immigration has great
remains unchanged. The challenges connected to potential to support the nation and its culture.
immigration have also stayed much of the same, In purely economic terms, educated immigrants
the main questions being how well immigrants integrated into the labour market result in a
integrate with the native population, what the smaller initial cost to society than a citizen of the
policies are to facilitate that process and how the same age who has been educated and provided
native population perceives immigration—as an with healthcare by public funds.2 Countries with
opportunity or a threat. multicultural populations that have managed to
resolve their ethnic tensions are obviously more
Today, the majority of American scholars agree apt to succeed in a globalised world.
that the large-scale immigration that lasted for
decades is one of the most important reasons for But if mismanaged, immigration—especially
the growth of the United States, which enabled uncontrolled illegal immigration—has the
it to become a major global force in the early potential to create tensions in the host country
20th century. Not often is it mentioned that and to put immigrants in an unbearable
back then, just as today, the existing population position. Once suspicion becomes established
had fears about how the new immigrants between immigrant groups and native citizens,
from European countries would transform this negative sentiment is difficult to change.
society—fears that were expressed on numerous
occasions through rejection and resentment.1 Is immigration part of the problem or part of
Now, one hundred years later, the United States the solution?
is proud of its immigration heritage. The same
phenomenon can be seen in Europe throughout Do European politicians face this phenomenon
history: migration has often been confronted with enough honesty? With enough urgency?
with scepticism, but surprisingly, the periods in And most of all, with a real sense of responsibility?
which it has occurred have been quickly perceived Clearly, the European Union needs more legal
as important chapters in the development of a immigration, but with the same conviction we
nation and its citizens. have to say that the European Union cannot
tolerate illegal immigration.
Obviously, advances in modern technology have
changed the condition of immigrants’ lives. Like the rest of the western world, Europe
Cheaper communication and transport costs faces a demographic crisis.3 The demographic
have simplified their lifestyle, allowing them projections indicate a decline in the EU workforce
to stay in contact with their country of origin in the neighbourhood of one million workers
1
Huntington, S. (2004). Who are we? The challenges to America’s national identity. Free Press.
2
Sweden’s Bureau of Statistics and Swedish Consumer Agency conducted a study on the average costs to family and society of 20-year-old
Swedish citizen with high school education. The average cost was EUR 323,000 (Kuntalehti. 3/2007, Immigration saving millions to the
Swedish Society. Maria Palo (translated from Finnish).
3
Eurostat ‘Population by age group, gender, in 2000 and 2050, in percentage of total population in each group’, http://www.oecd.org/data-
oecd/52/31/38123085.xls. 5
Volume 5 - Spring 2007

7. Editorial: Europe and Immigration
between 2010 and 2030 as a result of this current EU members. In the meantime, it is essential to
crisis. Immigration is an opportunity to provide avoid irresponsible legalisation processes which
possible solutions for future demographic risk creating instability in the EU as a whole.
challenges that Europe is facing.
In order for the native population of Europe to
Immigration should be used as a tool that better feel the positive effects of immigration
supports the development of a strong and and for immigrants to receive a better welcome,
prosperous EU economy, in which the benefits of some principles of immigration policy need to
immigration are shared across all regions of the be developed and clarified. Essentially, these
European Union. Immigration enriches Europe policies need to allow Europe to pursue the
economically, socially and culturally. Therefore, maximum social, cultural and economic benefits
we need to promote the successful integration of immigration.
of legal immigrants into the European Union,
while recognising that integration involves But immigration is not a one-way street
mutual obligations for new immigrants and EU benefiting only Europe. The countries of origin
Member States. also can benefit. For that reason, relations
between the European Union and third
The EU as a whole has the obligation to offer countries must consider clear migration policies
an environment that is welcoming and free of with a strong emphasis on fighting illegal
prejudices, respecting the individual rights immigration. This would lead to more stability
of immigrants, offering them possibilities, in the countries of origin and would contribute
and recognising the potential benefits that to their development.
immigration offers to Europe.
The question of immigration is a moral
It goes without saying that Europe needs to make responsibility that the European Union has not
immigration a major priority. The first and most only towards the countries ‘exporting’ migrants
important step would be to create a common but also towards itself. For all the reasons
European migration policy. It should be done outlined above, we at the European People’s
urgently, as the pressures of immigration on Party (EPP) have understood this principle and
the EU are incessantly increasing. This is largely have placed immigration high on the agenda of
due to the fact that illegal immigration attracts our priorities.4
organised crime and provokes abuses and even
the loss of human lives. How to develop policies for legal
immigration
The idea of a common legislation with regard
to immigration is emphasised by the Schengen With regard to legal immigration, it is evident
Convention. Because of the freedom of move- that the EU Member States need to implement
ment within the European Union, a member a genuinely organised and well-coordinated
country practising an irresponsible immigration policy on immigration. For this to succeed, the
policy could open the door to illegal immigration responsibilities and financial burdens must be
for the whole Union and create major problems shared amongst all Member States.
in all the Member Countries. Therefore, there
is a clear necessity to establish a process of In order to successfully implement immigration
information on national measures in the fields policies, Member States need to involve local
of asylum and immigration as an initial short- and regional authorities in their discussions.
term step towards greater cooperation between Furthermore, their assistance would be
4
EPP Resolution ‘Illegal Immigration and the European Union’, approved by the EPP Summit in Meise, 14 December 200.
European View

8. Wilfried Martens
welcomed in establishing national plans has been an important initiative in developing
targeting integration and employment. Member concrete tools for the EU. However, for the
States need to involve all the pertinent levels of funds to achieve their purpose it is crucial that
government in decisions concerning the quotas they be reviewed and increased periodically,
of foreign workers to be admitted into their in accordance with real needs. Also, local and
territories. regional authorities need to be involved in the
management of these funds.
Another important way for the European
Commission and Member States to help the There are several regions and cities that are
development of policies, with the cooperation particularly affected by an influx of immigration
of local and regional authorities, is by launching and lack the means to deal with the masses of
public awareness and information campaigns. immigrants.
These should strongly dispel public anxiety
with regards to immigration. In tandem, we Based on the principle of solidarity, emergency
could encourage countries of origin to launch financial instruments should be created in order
similar campaigns showcasing the benefits of to offer assistance to centres with the greatest
legal immigration and denouncing its falsely immigration influxes. Financial support for a
perceived dangers. common immigration policy must take into
account the regional differences that exist
EU Member States should strongly consider amongst Member States. Clearly, this issue
framing an active policy to facilitate the must encourage flexible solutions and follow the
integration of immigrants who have entered principle of subsidiarity.
the country legally. Again, this should be done
in close cooperation with the local and regional Fighting illegal immigration
authorities. By active policy, we mean a policy that
takes into account the integration of immigrants Illegal immigration into the European Union
in the labour market and that encompasses their is a growing concern for its Member States.
educational, social and cultural backgrounds. Throughout the past year, the countries of the
Mediterranean in particular were heavily affected
The EU directives5 relating to immigration by massive numbers of people wanting to enter
and integration call for certain programmes their territories. This ongoing and aggravating
that should be fully transposed and applied in problem has partly been promoted by the massive
Member States. These programmes include legalisation of illegal immigrants in certain
family reunification, equal treatment and countries and by the economic situation in their
the statute of long-term residents from third countries of origin.
countries. The European Commission needs
to secure adequate financial means in order to In a European Union of open borders, illegal
reinforce specific programmes needed to integrate immigration does not affect only the countries
immigrants into the political and social life of the into which the immigrants enter. Often, they only
host country. These programmes should include use the countries as transit points to their final
language training, cultural and civic training, destination.
and the teaching of European values.
Illegal immigration cannot be condoned—it is
The creation of the European Fund for neither a solution for immigrants nor for their
Integration of Third Country Nationals,7 which countries of origin. Illegal immigration creates
has been established for the period of 2007–13, marginalisation and dramatic suffering for the
5
Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Community statistics on migration and international protection.
Council Directive 2003/8/EC of 22 September 2003 on the right to family reunification.
7
Ministry of Freedom, Security and Justice, ‘A common framework for the integration of third-country nationals’,
http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/immigration/integration/fsj_immigration_integration_en.htm.
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Volume 5 - Spring 2007

9. Editorial: Europe and Immigration
immigrants themselves. Europe’s need for a Europe’s borders need to be efficiently
common strategy to fight illegal immigration and controlled. We need stronger cooperation and
human trafficking cannot be stressed enough. solidarity among the Member States, especially
This can only be achieved by securing the EU’s in reinforcing the capacities of the European
external borders and exploring the establishment border protection agency Frontex and in
of a European surveillance system, linking up coordinating sea border patrols. In this respect,
existing national surveillance systems along with the establishment of a common European
implementing a robust return policy. Obviously, Coastguard responsible for securing the sea
we also need stronger efforts from the European borders of the Member States, could also prove
Union to improve the economic situation in the to be particularly useful.9 In the future, Frontex
countries of origin. should support and coordinate the national
border police units so that EU borders can be
What are the concrete tools for fighting illegal protected efficiently.
immigration? To start with, there is a clear
need for reliable statistics in order to fulfil Immigration—­an asset of prosperity
this task. Reliable statistics would permit the
implementation of an effective migration In order for Europe to fully benefit from
policy in Europe through the use of comparable immigration, we have to be able to critically
information. This needs to be done through the evaluate our policies and be open to learning
European Migration Network8 and its National from the success of others. For example, Canada’s
Contact Points, including regional and local society is organised in a way that is fairly similar to
levels. many European societies. Canada has experienced
a major flow of immigration for decades-in fact
The EU and its Member States, in cooperation more extensive than the majority of countries in
with local and regional authorities, need to move Europe. Nevertheless, in Canada immigration
towards a form of immigration that is regulated is not perceived as a problem and immigration
in collaboration with the third countries and policies are supported by its population.
transit countries involved. In fact, we should Successful actions against illegal immigration
aim at signing of joint agreements between EU and setting clear goals and principles for the
Member States and the countries of origin in implementation of immigration policies have
order to facilitate the readmission of illegal im- benefited both Canada and its immigrants.10
migrants.
Immigration has a complex dynamic, influencing
Tempting as it may be for a Member State to nations and the way societies perceive themselves.
unilaterally legalise its illegal immigrants en At the same time, immigration has very practical
masse, this is not a solution to the problem of short-term and long-term consequences on the
illegal immigration. This is particularly true if economy and its popula-tion. By focusing on
we take into account the absence of a common the real benefits of immigrants, Europe will learn
immigration and asylum system. Therefore the to utilise their rich dynamism to its advantage.
Commission’s proposal to issue a study in 2007 In the long run, Europeans will realise that
on the legalisation practices and effects in the immigrants and a good immigration policy are
Member States is indeed welcome. Plans for assets for a prosperous future.
legalazing illegal immigrants must be discussed
in advance, as they extensively affect other Wilfried Martens is the President of the European
Member States as well. People’s Party.
8
www.european-migration-network.org.
9
At the EPP Summit of 15 June 200, Greek Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis proposed the creation of a European Coastguard.
10
See Diane Finley “Canadian Immigration: Building Canada’s Future.” Brussels: European View, Spring 2007 - Volume 5, 27-34.
8
European View

10. Yasmeen Abu-Laban
North American and European Immigration Policies:
Divergence or convergence?
By Yasmeen Abu-Laban
As transatlantic travel- differences in history and policy detail evident
lers can attest, the between North American and many European
peoples and cultural countries, and even some differences between
landscapes of such Canada and the United States. By identifying
varied urban centres as divergence within convergence, not only does a
New York, Los Angeles, more nuanced comparative picture emerge, but
Montreal, Toronto, London, Paris and Brussels a wider range of policy choices is also uncovered.
have been shaped by global migration flows of I will argue that such nuance is beneficial to our
the post-World War II period. Indeed, since the collective understanding, to informed public
end of that war, one feature common to many and partisan debate, and to policymaking.
countries, particularly in the industrialised West,
has been the widespread use of immigration to Patterns of convergence in Europe and North
meet labour market needs. America
By the early twenty-first century, new responses Several points of convergence characterise
to this shared practice gave rise to the suggestion Canada, the United States and countries
that there are parallel trends in all labour- of the European Union, particularly those
importing countries—whether European that were members prior to 2004. First, and
or North American—that override seeming not insignificantly, all of these countries are
differences. Specifically, the ‘convergence demographically diverse in racial, cultural and
hypothesis’ holds that there is a growing religious terms as a result of post-war migratory
similarity between countries as seen variously in flows. By the 1980s in countries across Western
policies on integration, immigration and border Europe that had utilised migrant labour, it was
control, as well as in popular attitudes towards clear that migrant workers and their descendants
immigrants (Cornelius Tsuda, 2004, 4). Yet were, to borrow from a well-known book title of
the convergence hypothesis lacks nuance. Much the period, “here for good” (Castles et al., 1984).
as one can point to parallels between countries, Moreover, demographic diversity is in fact the
more detailed cross-national historical, policy global norm. Statistics show that only about
and attitudinal studies to date also find significant 10% of countries of the world can be said to be
differences between the North American and ethnically homogeneous (MOST Newsletter,
European context. 1995, p. 1).
Rather than assert a position of divergence or Second, for Canada, the United States and many
convergence, the purpose of this article is to countries of the EU, immigration itself remains a
consider more closely the ways in which there reality. Thus, despite efforts aimed at ‘controlling’
are points of divergence within convergence. To immigration, immigration continues because of
do so, I take a twofold approach. First, I specify the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors that give rise to global
some key ways in which the United States migration and make countries of these two
and Canada share certain trends with many continents magnets. A 200 OECD report notes
countries of the European Union. Second, I that “immigration flows grew rapidly during the
specify ways in which divergence operates within 1990s and are now growing again, using at times
this convergence by highlighting important irregular or unconventional channels” (OECD,
9
Volume 5 - Spring 2007

11. North American and European Immigration Policies: Divergence or Convergence?
200, p. 1). It can therefore be expected December 2004, a ‘safe third country’ agreement
that the ethnic composition of many national went into effect between Canada and the United
populations will diversify further, since one States (van Selm, 2005). The trend towards
major feature of contemporary globalisation is increased border control has been reinforced as
the qualitatively distinct nature of international a result of the 11 September 2001 attacks in the
migratory flows both to and from a much wider United States, since controlling immigration
range of countries and world regions than was (illegal or otherwise) has come to be linked with
ever the case historically (Held et al., 1999, fighting terrorism (Abu-Laban, 2005).
p. 297). In this regard it is interesting to note
that newer EU members such as Poland and Fifth, the value or desirability of immigration
the Slovak Republic are now receiving asylum and diversity remains the subject of popular and
seekers in greater numbers (OECD, 200, pp. political debate in all countries. Since the source
20–13). countries and class composition of immigrants
can vary tremendously, the exact details of these
Third, countries of Europe and North America, debates can vary. For example, in the 1990s
with ageing populations, costly welfare states in Vancouver, Canada, the city council dealt
and declining work forces in certain sectors, with complaints about wealthy immigrants
are now in a competition with each other, from Hong Kong who were accused of
especially for highly skilled labour. This is giving negatively transforming the landscapes of older
rise once again to the long-standing concern neighbourhoods by constructing large ‘monster
about the possible negative consequences of houses’ at the expense of trees (Abu-Laban,
the ‘brain drain’ for countries of the developing 1997). However, it is noteworthy that since 11
world (despite remittances) and generating new September 2001 long-standing debates about
concerns about immigrants ending up in jobs the place of Islam in Europe are now finding
for which they are overqualified (OECD, 200, an entirely new echo in Canada and the United
pp. 1–17). States, as both popular and political debates
have come to focus more squarely on Muslim
Fourth, since the 1980s there has been increased immigrants and their descendants. This was in
attention to border control and a growing evidence in the small rural (and predominantly
linkage of immigration control with security at white and French-speaking) town of Hérouxville,
both national and regional levels. At the same Canada, when the town council introduced in
time that Project 1992 with its goal of a frontier- 2007 a controversial code of behaviour expected
free Europe was unfolding, many migration of newcomers that included banning the hijab
specialists began to talk about a ‘Fortress Europe’ except on Halloween (CBC News, 2007).
in relation to citizens from non-EU countries,
especially those in the developing world In liberal democratic countries of Europe and
(Huysmans, 2000). Since the 1980s, Canada North America, there is a commitment to
has also moved towards extending controls, both human rights (including support of the UN
overseas and at home, and has made greater use convention on refugees) as well as individual
of detention and deportation of asylum seekers rights (including freedom of religion and
(Pratt, 2005). Likewise, the reinforcement of freedom from discrimination based on religion,
border control between the United States and ethnicity or race). Nonetheless, these shared
Mexico grew steadily over the 1980s and 1990s trends of diversity, continued immigration and
and was identified as another plank in the competition for skilled immigrants combined
building of a “wall around the West” (Andreas with uncertainty about the value of diversity
Snyder, 2000). Certain trends evident within and implementation of increased border control
the EU (e.g. the Dublin Convention governing not only seem contradictory, but also mean that
refugees) now find parallels in North America: in the policy terrain is far from smooth. What is
10
European View

12. Yasmeen Abu-Laban
interesting is that this terrain has been negotiated histories, such as France, which made heavy
in different ways. use of migrant labour from the mid-nineteenth
century onwards (Verbunt, 1985, 127), it
Patterns of divergence in Europe and North is significant that neither immigration nor
America recognition of ethnic variation (through census
questions, for example) found expression
The divergences evident between North America in French understandings of nationhood,
and Europe pertain to national histories which were profoundly shaped by the French
and national self-definitions in relation to Revolution and its implied ‘fusion’ of the people
immigration; the nature of legal and illegal (Noiriel, 1992). In contrast, the narratives of
immigration flows, historically and today; settler colonies tend to be oriented toward the
and the manner in which specific aspects of future, rather than the past; that is, ‘the nation’
integration policy—such as the actual rules is always becoming, and thus there is some
governing citizenship acquisition—have been greater space for redefining ‘the nation’ through
approached. Additionally, contemporary successive waves of immigration (Abu-Laban
researchers attuned to globalisation and regional Lamont, 1997).
integration have observed how North America,
as defined through the 1994 North American In concrete expressions, this has meant that both
Free Trade Agreement between Canada, the American and Canadian politicians and publics
United States and Mexico, has produced a frequently link the ideas of immigration and
regime governing the mobility of people that nation, and make use of metaphors that highlight
is different from that of the European Union. diversity. Consider, for example, American
This is because ‘the free movement of peoples’ is President John F. Kennedy’s book A Nation of
not a stated goal of the North American project, Immigrants (193); or more recently, President
in contrast to the European one. Each of these George W. Bush’s advocation in 200 to be open
points of divergence will be considered in turn. to the possibility of extending US citizenship to
some long-residing illegal immigrants as a way to
Narratives of the nation “honor the tradition of the melting pot, which has
made one nation out of many peoples” (Office of
An important aspect of comparative immigration the Press Secretary, 200). While the metaphor of
research has been facilitated by attention to ‘the melting pot’ has had long-standing purchase
different national narratives concerning the in the United States, the metaphor of choice in
connection (or disconnect) between ‘nation’, Canada has been that of ‘the mosaic’ (reflected
immigration and diversity. The most evident in the Canadian government’s 1971 policy of
outcome of this focus shows up in the kind multiculturalism within a bilingual English and
of language that structures how countries are French framework).
frequently categorised within migration research.
For example, countries formed through settler It is also important to note that despite ongoing
colonization—such as Canada and the United polls (e.g. The Dominion Institute, 2005)
States—are typically designated ‘traditional’ that frequently find little difference between
or ‘classic’ immigration countries; countries of Americans and Canadians when it comes to
Europe are designated as simply ‘European’, attitudes towards minorities and newcomers, at a
‘new’ or even sometimes ‘reluctant’ countries popular level in Canada ‘the mosaic’ is seen to be
of immigration.1 Thus while there are some different from ‘the melting pot’. This is because
European countries with long immigration for many Canadians ‘the melting pot’ is perceived
1
See for example, the categorizations used in Cornelius et.al., 2004.
11
Volume 5 - Spring 2007

13. North American and European Immigration Policies: Divergence or Convergence?
to be a vehicle for assimilation, whereas ‘the United States has based admission on the right
mosaic’ is seen to allow for the coexistence (and to live permanently in the country and to acquire
thus expression) of linguistic, cultural and ethnic citizenship. Put differently, although both
diversity (Reitz Breton, 1994, p. 81). As a Canada and the United States have made use
result, for many Canadians today (especially for of temporary labour, particularly in the area of
English speakers outside the province of Quebec) agriculture, such programs have been small. The
the mosaic versus multiculturalism distinction is difference in this tradition shows up in the fact
believed to be a point of national differentiation that the term ‘migrant’, which is used in many
between Canada and the United States. The European countries, has next to no policy or
salience of this distinction was captured in an popular purchase in either Canada or the United
unusually popular beer advertisement featuring States, since the term of choice is ‘immigrant’.
‘Joe Canadian’ that ran in English in Canada in Additionally, while large-scale labour importation
the early 2000s. Joe Canadian’s ‘rant’ (which in European countries declined significantly in
was especially well received at sporting events in certain periods (particularly after 1973/74), for
Canada) stressed that he had a “prime minister, both Canada and the United States the quest
not a president”; that he spoke “English and for workers has remained relatively steady in
French, not American”; and that he believed in the post-war period. The 2000 US census shows
“diversity, not assimilation”. that 11.1% of US citizens are foreign born, and
the 2001 Canadian census shows that a sizeable
Notwithstanding the ongoing debate over 18.4% of Canadian citizens are foreign-born
whether attitudes are different between (Boyd, 200, p. 1).
Canada and the United States, Canada was
the first country to introduce an official policy Historically, both Canada and the United States
of multiculturalism, which was followed by gave entry and settlement preference to British-
the 1982 entrenchment of multiculturalism origin Protestants. However, since 195 in
in the Canadian constitution. Although the case of the United States and 197 in the
multiculturalism policy has been subject to case of Canada, these explicit discriminatory
criticisms from a number of angles and has shifted barriers have been removed. In both countries
in response to some of these criticisms, it has immigration legislation developed a new em-
long been upheld by its defenders in and outside phasis on attracting immigrants with skills. This
government as conducive to fostering inclusion, feature was especially strong in Canada, which
avoiding tension and creating national unity. in 197 introduced a point system (still in effect
Given these factors, it is perhaps not surprising today) that numerically assesses independent
that in 2007 the Canadian Broadcasting applicants (those who are not seeking entry
Corporation (a crown corporation of the on the basis of family membership or refugee
Canadian government) aired a new television status) on education, training and knowledge
comedy entitled Little Mosque on the Prairie. of the official languages of English and French.
The show finds humour in the interactions, the As a result, many immigrants to both countries
differences, and the many points in common have gone directly into professional jobs without
between Muslims and non-Muslims living in a having to first play a more subservient role in
fictional small Canadian town. the economy.
Immigration flows Additionally, while in many European countries
migrants came from former overseas colonies
In contrast to the guest worker schemas adopted (accounting for the large numbers of Algerians
by many European countries in the years in France and Surinamese in the Netherlands),
following World War Two, the primary legislation in the case of Canada and the United States the
governing immigration in both Canada and the source countries for immigrants have reflected
12
European View

14. Yasmeen Abu-Laban
somewhat different patterns. Mexico was the for selecting all immigrants and refugees abroad
lead immigration country for the United States who are destined for Quebec. Like the federal
in 2004, followed by India, the Philippines, government, Quebec uses a point system of
China and Vietnam (OECD, 200, p. 225). For selection, but favours immigrants who are French-
Canada, China was the lead country in 2004, speaking. Actual admission to Canada remains a
followed by India, the Philippines, Pakistan and competency of the federal government.
the United States (OECD, 200, p. 173).
Integration policies
The United States, like many countries of Europe,
has focused heavily on illegal immigration flows Policies addressing integration cover a wide
since the 1980s, a feature that is in part tied to its range of spheres, from the economic to the
geographical proximity to Mexico, a major source social to the political, designed to ensure
country for both legal and illegal immigration. that both newcomers and the host society
In the case of the United States, concern over make accommodations. There is now much
illegal flows remains strong today, provoking comparative work addressing the relative success
passionate responses (as seen in the large protests of various approaches in all these spheres as a
of 200 against proposed legislation raising the result of the international Metropolis project,
penalties for illegal immigration and treating which brings together academics, policymakers
illegal immigrants and those who aided them and NGOs. Metropolis has been supported by a
as felons). In contrast to both the United States number of countries (including Canada and the
and Europe, Canada has not been preoccupied United States) as well as by the EU Commission.
with illegal immigration flows, a feature that Such research is critically important to a full
may stem largely from its geographic distance consideration of the similarities, differences and
from any source country. Indeed, whereas there best practices of countries in Europe and North
is a long tradition of attempting to estimate the America.2
numbers of illegal immigrants in the United
States (currently numbering about 10 million), A couple of points stand out, however, in
in the case of Canada there is no solid research addressing certain aspects of integration. Canada
on this topic (Boyd, 200, p. ). and the United States share a jus soli citizenship
tradition, and both countries allow for the
Perhaps as a result of the fact that illegal possibility of dual citizenship (although it is not
immigration in Canada is a relative non-issue, encouraged in the United States). As suggested,
immigration itself has not been as divisive the relative ease with which immigrants can
an issue within or between political parties acquire citizenship itself and the fact that both
in Canada as it has in the United States, and Canada and the United States view immigrants as
particularly in many countries of Europe. permanent makes for some distinction between
Another relatively distinct feature of immigration these two countries and what has transpired in
in Canada (a federal state) is that immigration is many countries of post-war Europe.
constitutionally defined as a concurrent area of
federal and provincial jurisdiction. As a result, Additionally, some recent work addressing the
the province of Quebec, home to a majority question of political integration specifically
of French speakers, has been able to assert its suggests that there may be some important
powers in the sphere of immigration. These differences between Canada and the United
efforts culminated in the 1991 Canada-Quebec States. Irene Bloemraad (200) finds that
Accord, which gives Quebec sole responsibility the same immigrant groups (Portuguese and
2
To access Metropolis Canada, as well as Metropolis International, see http://www.metropolis.net.
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15. North American and European Immigration Policies: Divergence or Convergence?
Vietnamese) are much more likely to acquire borders (for trade) and reinforcement of borders
citizenship, get elected to political office and be (in relation to people).
involved in community organising in Canada
than in the United States. She attributes this conclusion
to the Canadian federal government’s relatively
generous support for settlement services, as well Despite evident similarities and differences
as to official multiculturalism. This then suggests within and between North America and Europe,
that not only planning for permanent settlement the above analysis suggests that realistic policy
but also supporting this settlement through responses require at a minimum that the reality
government programs is important for ensuring of ongoing immigration be recognised and that
positive outcomes. there be long-term planning in keeping with
liberal democratic principles supporting human
Regional context rights, individual rights and inclusion. In this
regard, the evolving European Union, with its
A final difference that should be explored relates emphasis on granting mobility and other rights
to the regional dimension of Europe and North to EU citizens, offers a distinct regional response
America. Although the 1994 North American that finds no parallel in North America—or
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between anywhere else in the world. On the other hand, the
Canada, the United States and Mexico has North American tradition of viewing immigrants
led to the growing integration of the national as permanent, of extending them citizenship, and
economies of the three member countries, and of defining them as part of the nation (reinforced
correspondingly to more attention to both in Canada with a policy of multiculturalism and
multilateral and bilateral (US-Canada and US- settlement service programs) offers another set
Mexico) mechanisms governing the flows of of practices responding to liberal democratic
people, there is a marked difference from the norms. These different approaches provide
European Union. The European Union accords citizens and policymakers of both continents
the right of mobility and residence to all EU with an opportunity to learn from each other’s
citizens (with newer EU Member States being experiences, and hopefully thereby improve on
phased in), while the NAFTA arrangement current practices and policies.
simply allows for the expedited temporary entry
of business people and professionals. Moreover,
in its first decade of operation, not only was
access to the American labour market through Yasmeen Abu-Laban is an Associate Professor in the
NAFTA enjoyed more by Canadian nationals Department of Political Science at the University of
than Mexican ones (because Mexicans were Alberta (Canada).
required to get visas and because the United
States put a cap on NAFTA flows; see Gabriel
MacDonald, 2004, p. 78), but the border
between Mexico and the United States was
fortified.
In short, while Mexico and Canada have
embarked on signing bilateral ‘smart border’
accords with the United States since 2001
to ensure continued access to the American
market, there is nothing approaching a ‘North
American citizenship’. North America is instead
characterised by the paradoxical erasure of
14
European View

16. Yasmeen Abu-Laban
References
Abu-Laban, Y. (1997). Ethnic politics in a Cornelius, W., Tsuda, T., Martin, P. and Hollified,
globalizing metropolis: The case of Vancouver. J (Ed:). (2004). Controlling immigration: A global
In T. Thomas (Ed.), The politics of the city: A perspective (Second Edition). Palo Alto: Stanford
Canadian perspective (pp. 77–95). Scarborough: University Press.
ITP Nelson.
Cornelius, W., Tsuda, T. (2004). Controlling
Abu-Laban, Y. (2005). Regionalism, migration immigration: The limits of government
and fortress (North) America. Review of intervention. In Cornelius et.al., 2004 (pp. 3-
Constitutional Studies, 10 (1 2), 135–2. 48).
Abu-Laban, Y., Lamont, V. (1997). Crossing The Dominion Institute. (2005). Illusion
borders: Interdisciplinarity, immigration and the that Canada’s a multicultural mosaic and the
melting pot in the American cultural imaginary. United States is a melting pot. 15 May. http://
The Canadian Review of American Studies 27 (2) www.dominion.ca/americanmyths/2005_
(September-October), 23–43. multiculturalism.pdf
Andreas, P., Snyder, T. (Eds.).(2000). The wall Gabriel, C., MacDonald, L. (2004). The
around the West: State borders and immigration hypermobile, the mobile and the rest: Patterns of
controls in North America and Europe. Lanham: inclusion and exclusion in the emerging North
Roman and Littlefield. American migration regime. Canadian Journal
of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 29(57
Bloemraad, I. (200). Becoming a citizen: 58),7-91.
Incorporating immigrants and refugees in the
United States and Canada. Berkeley: University Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblatt, D.
of California Press. Perraton, J. (1999). Global transformations:
Politics, economics and culture. Stanford: Stanford
Boyd, M. (200). Gender aspects of international University Press.
migration to Canada and the United States.
Paper given at the International Symposium Huysmans, J. (2000). The European Union
on International Migration and Development, and the securitisation of migration. Journal of
Population Division, Department of Economic Common Market Studies, 38(5) (December),
and Social Affairs, United Nations Secretariat. 751–77.
Turin, June.
Kennedy, J.F. (193). A nation of immigrants.
Castles, S., with Booth, H. Wallace, T. New York: Harper and Row.
(1984). Here for good: Western Europe’s new ethnic
minorities. London: Pluto Press. MOST Newsletter 3. (1995). June. http://www.
unesco.org/most/newlet3e.htm
CBC News. (2007). Muslim groups to launch
complaint over town’s immigrant code. 5 February. Noiriel, G. (1992). Difficulties in French
http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2007/02/05/qc- historical research on immigration. In D.L.
reasonableaccommodation20070205.html Horowitz G. Noiriel (Eds.), Immigrants in two
democracies: French and American experience (pp.
–79). New York: New York University Press.
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OECD. (200). Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development, International
migration outlook: SOPEMI. Paris: OECD.
Office of the Press Secretary. (200). President
Bush addresses the nation on immigration
reform. May 15. http://www.whitehouse.gov/
news/releases/200/05/2000515-8.html
Pratt, A. (2005). Securing borders: Detention and
deportation in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press.
Reitz, J.G., Breton, R. (1994). The illusion of
difference: Realities of ethnicity in Canada and the
United States. Toronto: C.D. Howe Institute.
van Selm, J. (2005). Immigration and regional
security. In E. Guild J. van Selm (Eds.),
International migration and security: Opportunities
and challenges (pp. 11–27). London and New
York: Routledge.
Verbunt, G. (1985). France. In T. Hammar
(Ed.), European immigration policy: A comparative
perspective (pp.127-14) Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
1
European View

18. Sali Berisha
commentary: Albanian Migration in Europe—Bridge or Barrier?
By Sali Berisha
At last year’s Festival Albanian migrants have indeed been a valuable
di Sanremo, Italy’s force in helping Albania develop as an economy
most important annual and a democracy and, most importantly, in
music event, one of bridging the divide between Albania and other
the contestants who European countries that was created over more
captivated the hearts than 50 years of communist rule.
of Italians was Elsa Lila, a young Albanian girl
living in Italy for the past 10 years. Her success Due to their generally young age, hard work
at the Festival is a measure of the integration of and in particular their investment in education,
Albanian migrants into European societies and Albanian migrants quickly overcame the image
their contribution in bringing together cultures, problem that every migrant group initially faces,
people and countries. and soon integrated into the new-found Euro-
pean societies.
In 1990, Albania emerged out of communism
as a country looking for light after almost 50 Today Albanian migrants in all European
years of extreme isolation from the entire world, countries, from Norway to Greece, are diligent
a country where religion, western thought and workers, entrepreneurs, intellectuals, entertainers
philosophy, foreign culture, literature, music and more. Albanian migrants have excelled in
and western products were strictly forbidden business, art, culture, sports and other areas,
and almost unknown. and have won the respect of their peers and the
public. The first violins of La Scala in Milan,
Since the first days after the collapse of the the Munich Philharmonic Orchestra and the
communism, waves of migrants have flowed Opera of Paris are Albanians. Many Albanians
out of the country, mainly towards Western today are professors and academics in the most
Europe and in particular to Greece and Italy. important universities and research centres
Leaving behind the most totalitarian country in throughout Europe. Albanian workers, engineers
Europe, they were forced to migrate mainly due and specialists were the most important working
to poverty, but were also driven by the urge for force in building the venues and facilities for
freedom, knowledge and education. the Olympic Games in Athens, a contribution
that was acknowledged and valued by Greek
Now, 17 years later, almost one million Albanians authorities. In particular, in Greece and Italy,
live and work abroad, more than 90% of them where the concentration of Albanian migrants
in Western Europe. This is 25–30% of Albania’s is the greatest, they have become an important
population, or approximately 35% of its labour contributing factor to society.
force.
Such a migration flow is unparalleled in every Such achievements have improved the image
regard by that of any other European country. and knowledge of Albania throughout Europe,
Also unique has been the role of Albanian helping the country become known to the
migration in the country’s development and its peoples of Europe.
integration into the rest of Europe.
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19. Commentary: Albanian Migration in Europe—Bridge or Barrier?
But Albanian migrants have also shown a concrete We are optimistic that in the coming years
sense of solidarity with their country and their Albanian migrants in Europe will become an even
families. Their remittances have been a major stronger force, not only for the development of
source of income for thousands of Albanian the country, but also for our efforts at European
families and the entire economy. Without such integration. To this end, the Government will
support, which counts for approximately 10–15% continue to give all its support to emigrants for
of the country’s GDP every year, our economic their integration into European societies and
domestic progress would not have been possible. their eventual return to Albania.
Albanian migrants in Europe have at the same
time been a very strong source of Europeanism
for Albanians. If Albania is the most pro-EU
country in Europe, this is also a credit to our Sali Berisha is the Prime Minister of Albania.
emigrants. They have been the ones promoting
European culture, values and attitudes to their
families and their countrymen.
This contribution has increased dramatically in
the past years, due to the fact that many mi-
grants are returning to Albania after years of
work and education in Europe. Many of them
are investing the savings and skills gained abroad
in economic activities, very often together with
European businessmen. Others who are West-
ern-educated are being reintegrated into public
administration, civil society and private sector
management positions. In such positions they
are instilling European approaches and values
throughout Albanian society, acting as real am-
bassadors for our European integration.
Conscious of their valuable contribution, the
Albanian Government, in cooperation with
other European governments and international
organisations, is developing special policies
and programmes to incentivise investments in
Albania by Albanian emigrants. At the same
time, a major Brain Gain Programme1 is already
in place and is assisting hundreds of western-
educated Albanians to be involved in the public
sector. In addition, this programme has also
enlisted the support of many Albanians who
work in academic and research positions in
Europe, involving them in policy discussions for
the country’s major programmes.
1
Programme jointly sponsored by the Albanian Government and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
18
European View

20. Thomas Faist and Andreas Ette
Between Autonomy and the European Union:
The Europeanisation of National Policies and Politics of Immigration
By Thomas Faist and Andreas Ette
In comparison to other is known about the extent of the impact that
policy areas, migration international and European influences, in
and residence have particular, have had on these national reforms.
only recently begun What role does and can the EU play in the
to acquire a Euro- increasingly multilevel approach to regulating
pean dimension. Thus, migration? If there is a European influence,
recent years have seen significant changes in what is the nature of that influence: are national
the direction of stronger European regulation, immigration policies moving toward a similar,
accompanied by a transfer of competencies from shared model, or does the Europeanisation of
the national to the European level and shifts in national policies lead to greater divergence?
the modes of European policy-making. What Studies of the process of policy Europeanisation
began as intergovernmental cooperation among in other areas have shown that it varies greatly
Member States has become a form of ‘intensive from one country to another. Do these findings
transgovernmentalism’, with further moves hold true for immigration policies as well, and,
toward the traditional Community method as if so, how can these differences in the European
powers have increasingly been transferred from impact be explained?
the national to the EU level (Lavenex Wallace,
2005). Furthermore, past discussions of the theory of
European integration of immigration policies
In parallel with these developments at the have concluded that national political constraints
European level, over the last two decades all provided a major rationale for policymakers to
the European countries with significant levels ‘escape to Europe’. How does the establishment
of immigration have overhauled their national of a harmonised policy at the European level go
immigration policies. Thus, Germany revamped on to affect the domestic politics of immigration?
its asylum policy in 1992 and introduced its The research available to date is contradictory on
first-ever comprehensive immigration act in these questions, mainly because there is “little
January 2005. In the United Kingdom, four systematic empirical research on how European
major immigration acts have been produced developments ‘hit home’ at the national level”
since 1999. Likewise, the Spanish ‘Alien Law’ (Vink, 2005, p. 4).
has undergone three major reforms in recent
years; the government of Poland introduced key In order to shed light on these questions, we have
legislation in 2001 and 2003; and work is in undertaken a systematic comparative analysis
progress in Turkey on a new ‘Law of Settlement’ of the Europeanisation of national policies and
to replace the existing act, which dates back to politics of immigration (Faist Ette, 2007).
1934. The study looks at core Member States of the
European Union, such as Germany, the United
Immigration experts have devised different Kingdom, Sweden, Spain and Greece, and also
models to explain the varieties of national analyses the impact of the EU on New Member
immigration policies (for a recent review, see States such as Poland, and potential future
Hollifield, 2000). However, comparatively little accession states, such as Turkey and Albania.
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21. Between Autonomy and the European Union: The Europeanisation of National Policies and Politics of Immigration
The history of European integration of communitarisation, marked by the Treaty of
immigration policies Amsterdam. The Treaty brought immigration
policies into the Community pillar by creating
European integration of national immigration a new Title IV, and incorporated the Schengen
policies has progressed in four periods. The first, Agreement into the acquis communautaire.
from 1957 to 198, was characterised by minimal Determined to increase the degree of integration,
involvement in national immigration policies. the European Council summit in Tampere in
Immigration policies fell under national control, 1999 set out a five-year action programme on
and initiatives by the European Commission the central measures of a common European
toward closer EU cooperation within the immigration policy. Five years later, in June 2004,
traditional community method of decision- the Commission published its final assessment
making were regularly declined. During this of the original Tampere programme, stating that
period, however, significant cooperation on these “substantial progress has been made in most
questions took place outside the EU’s traditional areas of justice and home affairs.” Because of the
structures. Examples include the Trevi group, intergovernmental decision-making procedures
which was established by European Member based on unanimity in the Council of Ministers,
States during the 1970s to cooperate on internal however, “it was not always possible to reach
security measures, and, crucially, the 1985 agreement at the European level for the adoption
Schengen Agreement concerning cooperation on of certain sensitive measures relating to policies
the mutual abolition of internal border controls which remain at the core of national sovereignty”
and the development of compensating internal (Commission of the European Communities,
security measures. 2004, p. 3–4).
These intergovernmental forms of cooperation Major obstacles relating to the decision-making
helped to shape cooperation during the second structures and the scope of integration were
period, from 198 until 1993. That period was overcome in December 2004, when the Council
characterised by informal intergovernmentalism, decided that, beginning on 1 January 2005,
in which representatives from the Member decision-making on EU immigration policies
States engaged in a process of closer cooperation. (with the exception of legal immigration) would
Examples are the Ad Hoc Working Group become subject to qualified majority voting
on Immigration, established in 198, and (QMV) and the co-decision procedure with the
the group of coordinators that prepared the European Parliament (EP), thus providing for
Palma Programme, dealing with the security serious supranationalisation of this policy area.
implications of the free-movement measures in Finally, attempts by migrants to enter the EU
the Union’s Single European Act. illegally through the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta
and Melilla in autumn 2005 lent urgency to the
The third period, from 1993 until 1999, was desire for further integration, by showing the
shaped by the Maastricht Treaty and its structure weaknesses of a migration policy that focuses
of formal intergovernmental cooperation. The primarily on migration control while neglecting
three-pillar structure of the EU made integrated the root causes of migration (Boswell, 2003).
immigration policies under the EU a reality, and
recognised immigration issues as being of com- Defining Europeanisation
mon interest. The decision-making structures in
the third pillar, however, ensured that cooperation For our comparative analysis, we broadly defined
remained strictly intergovernmental. Europeanisation as the impact that the European
Union has on its Member States. More specifi-
The current period, beginning in the late cally, we followed the work of Bulmer and Radael-
1990s, has been characterised by increasing li (2004, p. 4), who defined Europeanisation
20
European View

22. Thomas Faist and Andreas Ette
as consisting of “processes of a) construction, of change. Absorption refers to a situation where
b) diffusion and c) institutionalisation of domestic policies or politics adapt to European
formal and informal rules, procedures, policy requirements without real modification of the
paradigms, styles, ‘ways of doing things’ and essential national structures of policies or politics.
shared beliefs and norms which are first defined Transformation occurs if there is a change in the
and consolidated in the EU policy process and fundamental logic of the domestic policy or
then incorporated in the logic of domestic political behaviour. Finally, retrenchment means
(national and sub-national) discourse, political that the situation in a Member State becomes
structures and public policies.” less ‘European’ than it had been.
This definition provides us with a broad The second research question concerns how
framework for understanding multi-level the European impact is felt, and what the
governance interactions in Europe, and makes differences are in the European impact among
it clear that Europeanisation is a two-way the different countries under consideration.
process—bottom-up and top-down—between Theoretical attempts to account for varying
the Member States and the EU. It acknowledges patterns of Europeanisation focus mainly on
that any comprehensive explanation of Member the ‘quality of fit’ between policies and politics
State responses to the EU requires an analysis of at the European and the domestic level (for an
how the two processes interact (see, for example, overview, see Mastenbroek, 2005 and Risse,
Börzel, 2005). For purposes of clarity, we 2001). By contrast, our analysis follows the work
limited our research to the top-down process of done by Scharpf (1999), differentiating between
Member State adaptation to the EU, as opposed two fundamental modes of Europeanisation to
to European integration, understood as the account for the differences in the EU’s impact
bottom-up process of Member States projecting on the national policies of Member States and
influence. We therefore followed the usual three- other countries. The two modes—prescriptive
step approach. The process of Europeanisation and discursive Europeanisation—are different
starts with the development of a governmental “types of interaction” (Scharpf, 1999) or
system and particular policies at the European “steering modes” (Knill Lenschow, 2005) that
level. These political structures and European characterise ideal-type patterns of governance in
policies then create pressure for domestic policies the multi-level European immigration policy.
and policy-making processes to be adapted. The They differ according to the degree of coercive
third stage, or endpoint, of this process consists pressure the EU can exert on a particular state to
of national policies and politics being adapted to change its policies.
EU-level developments.
The first mode—prescriptive Europeanisation—
Extent and modes of Europeanisation is concerned with national re-regulation in
cases where the EU provides institutional
Following on from this definition, we formulated models for domestic compliance. Prescriptive
two substantive research questions for our Europeanisation is a form of coercive governance,
comparative work. The first was to determine defined as legally binding European legislation
the extent of Europeanisation, and the second, that leaves little or no discretion to the national
to improve our understanding of why and how implementer. Member States are obligated to
Europeanisation occurs in national policies and ensure that these supranational policies are
politics of immigration. For the first question, put into practice. In this mode the EU exerts
we followed the typology developed by Radaelli considerable coercive pressure on a Member
(2003), who differentiates between four types of State. In contrast, the second mode—discursive
change: inertia, absorption, transformation and Europeanisation—largely dispenses with
retrenchment. Inertia describes a situation of lack coercion. There is no legally binding prescription
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23. Between Autonomy and the European Union: The Europeanisation of National Policies and Politics of Immigration
of institutional models for domestic compliance; led to the Dublin Convention and the London
rather, these models offer non-binding sugge- resolutions. In contrast, the years after 1999
stions to guide national policy-makers in the have seen minimal national policy changes
search for regulatory solutions to certain policy resulting from EU initiatives. The sole exception
problems. In such a situation, the EU serves is policies on human trafficking and smuggling,
mainly as an arena for the exchange of political for which the UK adopted the European policy
ideas and promotes information exchange in framework, in the absence of an existing British
transnational networks. The best-known example policy on the matter.
is the open method of coordination.
In the case of all other European policies, the
‘Old’ versus ‘new’ Member states: different British government responded to European
national experiences with Europe requirements by introducing minor changes
only, or by opting out. The British case provides
With regard to the impact of the EU on national a prime example of the usefulness of the modes
policies and on the politics of immigration, of Europeanisation in explaining the European
two main findings will be discussed here. The impact on national immigration policies. The
first concerns differences between countries in relationship between the extent and mode
the extent of the European impact on national of Europeanisation is even more obvious in
immigration policies, which form a continuum the case of Germany. Germany is often seen
ranging from inertia or minor changes in as the ‘poster child’ of European integration,
domestic policies, to transformative and actively participating in the process of European
comprehensive changes at the other end of the integration in general and showing particular
spectrum. The six Member States in our study interest in a common European immigration
can be situated along this continuum, the most policy. In line with this image, European
extreme positions being those of the UK, with activities during the 1990s profoundly altered
only minor alterations, and Poland, with major Germany’s immigration policy. In particular, the
changes to its policy. In between are Germany fundamental revamping of Germany’s asylum
and Sweden, which are closer to the British policy with the change in its basic law can be
pole, and Greece and Spain, which are closer directly attributed to European involvement.
to the experience of Poland. Furthermore, the The Amsterdam Treaty, however, marks a
analysis shows a reciprocal relationship between turning point for Germany’s involvement in
the mode and the extent of Europeanisation: the common European immigration policy, as
discursive modes of interaction lead to greater Germany changed “from a vanguard to a laggard”
national policy change in the case of traditional (Hellmann et al., 2005). In contrast to the earlier
Member States, while prescriptive modes result period, European developments after 1999 have
in a greater extent of Europeanisation in the case not, overall, significantly affected Germany’s
of new Member States. immigration policy. Neither are any major policy
changes expected to come out of the new draft
Of the countries analysed, the UK shows the least bill, announced by the German government in
EU influence on the original British approach January 200, which will incorporate several
to immigration control, although the situation European directives.
has evolved over time. Overall, the influence
of European policy approaches on Britain’s At the other end of the spectrum is Poland, a
immigration and asylum policy was greater relatively new Member State that joined the
during the 1990s, prior to the Amsterdam EU in the course of the eastern enlargement
Treaty. Examples from the early 1990s include in 2004. Generally, those countries that
the changes to British asylum policy that came joined the club recently have experienced
about as a result of European initiatives that the most comprehensive Europeanisation of
22
European View