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Marine water parameters

                            Prof. S D Rathod
           B N Bandodkar College of Science
                   Thane, Maharashtra, India
Temperature




• Global water surface temperature
• Picture courtesy NASDA/NASA
  This is an image of global sea surface temperatures taken from Japan
  National Space Development Agency's (NASDA) AMSR-E instrument
  aboard NASA's Aqua spacecraft on August 27, 2003. The colors in this
  false-color map represent temperatures of the ocean's surface waters,
  ranging from a low of -2 C (28 F) in the darkest green areas to a high of
  35 C (95 F) in the brightest yellow-white regions. Sea ice is shown as
  white and land is dark gray.
Temperature




 • Thermo-haline surface circulation: Thermohaline
   circulation simply refers to global density-driven
   circulation (convection) of the oceans.
Oceanic currents




•   Trade winds cause circles near equator
•   Westerly winds carry polar water towards equator
•   Labrador current –very cold
•   Equator currents slosh towards east after continetal heating
•   Gulf currents –very warm
• The flow of cold, saline surface water (blue)
  downward and toward the equator can only
  be clearly recognized in the Atlantic. Warm
  surface water (red) flows in the opposite
  direction,
Factors affecting: Oceanic
              currents


• Another key factor that influences ocean
  currents is the density of seawater. Both
  temperature and salinity contribute to
  seawater density, thus local changes in
  temperature and the magnitude of
  freshwater inputs from rivers and streams
  can alter near shore ocean currents.
Marine upwelling
• Winds near the peninsula
  push warm water away from
  the surface allowing deep,
  cool, nutrient-rich water to
  rise, bringing nourishment to
  plankton, the basis of the
  oceanic food web. This
  process of upwelling is
  essential to the ocean oasis.
• Remains of dead,
  decomposing organisms sink
  to the ocean bottom making
  these deep, cold waters rich
  in nutrients. However, it is in
  the upper, sunlit layers of the
  ocean that phytoplankton
  (very small drifting plants) are
  able to utilize these nutrients.
Temp. Impact on Fish
Temp. Tolerance
• Eurythermic species
• Stenothermic species
•   There are many different ecosystems within the ocean depending on
    conditions such as the water temperature, the amount of sunlight that filters
    through the water, and the amount of nutrients.
•   Sunlight breaks through the top layer of ocean water. It can make its way as
    deep as 200 meters (656 feet).
•   Almost all marine life (about 90%) lives within this top, sunlit layer of the ocean.
•   The temperature of ocean water varies depending on its location. Water
    near the polar regions is colder than water near the equator. Water that is
    deep in the ocean is colder than water that is near the ocean surface.
•   Many animals and other organisms can only survive at certain temperatures.
•   Others are able to survive at wide range of temperatures and can live in
    more places in the ocean.
Temperature tolerance and
                Migration
• Because cold-blooded fish live within a small temperature range
  (stenothermic).
• Many fish try to stay within what is called their thermal optimum —
  not too warm, not too cold — just right. This thermal optimum varies
  for different species.
• Water temperature is a key factor for fly fishermen who chase
  striped bass and other game fish along the Atlantic seaboard.
• In spring, as the ocean starts to warm, the first arrivals from the south
  will be striped bass and bluefish, followed later by bonito and little
  tunny (false albacore).
• This pattern reverses itself as the water starts to cool in the fall, when
  the albies and bonito generally head south first. Looking in more
  detail at the stripers, their spring migration may be more closely tied
  to the northward migration of prey, such as herring, which in turn
  are probably influenced by warming water and spawning urges.
Extreme temperature
• Tidal pools 40ºC




• Deep sea sulfur vents 380ºC
Antarctic creatures
• About 200 species have been
  discovered. These include midges,
  mites and tardigrades.
• Krill are found in huge swarms which
  cover hundreds of kilometers in the
  waters around Antarctica.
• Many of the fish that live in
  Antarctica have 'antifreeze' in their
  bodies to stop their body fluids from
  freezing. Seaweeds, sponges,
  corals, worms, sea anemones and
  sea spiders are just some of the
  creatures to be found on the bottom
  of the Antarctic oceans.
Fishery Science: Marine water parameters sudeshrathod
Arctic creatures
Fishery Science: Marine water parameters sudeshrathod
Global
  warming
  affecting
  (changes in)
  oceanic
  temperature




• Courtesy NOAA
  Three-dimensional view of projected surface air
  temperature and ocean warming due to greenhouse
  gases as calculated by a low-resolution GFDL coupled
  ocean-atmosphere climate model.
LIGHT
• The visible light spectrum is the section of the electromagnetic
  radiation spectrum that is visible to the human eye. It ranges in
  wavelength from approximately 400 nm to 700 nm and is also
  known as the optical spectrum of light.




                                    Electromagnetic spectrum
Fate of light in aquatic systems:
             • Reflection - prevented
               from entering water by air-
               water surface interface

             • Scattering - suspended
               particles reflect light at a
               massive array of angles

             • Absorption - diminution of
               light by transformation into
               heat energy
Visible light penetration
             • Visible light penetrates
               into the ocean, but
               once past the sea
               surface, light is rapidly
               weakened by
               scattering and
               absorption (coastal
               water). The more
               particles that are in the
               water, the more the
               light is scattered. This
               means that light travels
               farther in clear water
               (open ocean).
Light: Oceanic Zonation
          • 45% of red and 2% of
            blue light is absorbed
            for every meter of
            depth.
          • Euphotic zone (00 to
            200 m)
          • Disphotic zone (200 to
            1000 m)
          • Aphotic zone (1000 to
            4000 m)
          • Abyssal zone more than
            4000 m.
Fishery Science: Marine water parameters sudeshrathod
Photic zone animals
           • he dark backs and
             light undersides of
           • these near-surface
             fish help them match
           • their environment in
             the open ocean. To
           • a predator looking
             from above, their dark
           • backs seem to blend
             into the dark depths.
           • From the side, their
             lighter sides blend
           • with the sunlit water
Fishery Science: Marine water parameters sudeshrathod
Deep sea animals
• Several organisms living in ocean depths have
  red coloration. Their red color effectively
  makes them “disappear” in the inky darkness,
  because no red wavelengths are present.
• Many deep sea organisms are able to
  produce their own light, called
  bioluminescence. Some animals, like the
  viperfish, possess bioluminescent organs on
  their bellies. As they migrate upwards to find
  food in shallower depths, where some visible
  light does penetrate, the bioluminescent
  organs on their bellies brighten.
Fishery Science: Marine water parameters sudeshrathod
Fishery Science: Marine water parameters sudeshrathod
Many bristlemouth species, such as the "spark angle -mouth"
above, are also bathypelagic ambush predators which can
swallow prey larger than themselves.
Light: Vertical migration




• Figure 1. Vertical distribution of the sardine
  (Sardina pilchardus) in the Thracian Sea. The dots
  show the observed average depths, and the solid
  line shows the predicted average depth of the
  distribution according to a cosine function model
  based on the time of day.
• Plankton at the sea surface is
  consumed by vertically migrating
  midwater fishes and squids. The
  daily migrations of these midwater
  species take them to the surface at
  night to feed, and to depths below
  500 meters during the day. This
  helps them avoid predators by
  keeping them in constant darkness.
  However, these vertical migrators
  decend on the bottom during
  daytime (downward migrations),
  are available to bottom dweller
  wreckfish to consume them. This
  vertical migration completes a
  transfer of energy from sunlit
  surface layers to the dark depths
  where wreckfish dwell
• Marine zooplankton perform daily
  excursions (i.e., vertical migrations) up
  and down in the water column, with
  changing levels of light triggering these
  daily migrations. For example, the
  classic pattern consists of zooplankton
  residing deep in the water column
  during the day when light levels are
  high. They ascend at dusk to the
  surface waters where they graze on
  phytoplankton at night.
• Red flabby whale fish make nightly
  vertical migrations into the lower
  mesopelagic zone to feed on
  copepods.
Night light fishing
Oxygen
• Oxygen is a very important gas in the ocean
  because of its role in biological processes.
  Marine plants such as phytoplankton ,
  seaweed, and other types of algae produce
  organic matter from carbon dioxide and
  nutrients through photosynthesis , the process
  that produces oxygen.
• The upper 10 to 50 meters (33 to 164 feet) of
  the ocean can be highly supersaturated with
  oxygen owing to photosynthesis.
Factors governing DO

• Atmospheric pressure, temperature and the rates of
  photosynthesis and decomposition.
• Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis and consumed
  during respiration and decomposition (compensation
  depth). The latter processes occur throughout the day and
  night, while the former occurs only during the day. For this
  reason, dissolved oxygen levels are often lowest just before
  dawn before photosynthesis resumes.
• Since the concentration of oxygen in our atmosphere is about
  21%, and only a fraction of 1% in water, oxygen seeks
  equilibrium by dissolving into water. This diffusion is increased
  by any turbulent flow over riffles in the creek, or by wind-driven
  waves both of which increase the surface area through which
  the diffusion can occur.
• The other major control of DO concentration is water
  temperature. Cold water can hold more dissolved gas than
  warm water.
Relationship between
temperature and DO
               • Oxygen has
                 limited solubility
                 in water, usually
                 ranging from 6
                 to 14 mg L -1
               • Oxygen
                 solubility varies
                 inversely with
                 salinity, water
                 temperature
                 and
                 atmospheric
                 and hydrostatic
                 pressure.
Monthly DO variation
DO at different depths
        • Surface is richest due
          to surface diffusion
          and photosynthesis
        • Minimal zone where
          respiration exceeds
          the photosynthesis
        • The deeper zone
          retains oxygen due to
          less respiration and
          decomposition rate
Oxygen regime at depths

          • Compensation depth is
            the balance between
            the photosynthesis of
            phytoplankters and the
            oxygen cosumed in
            respiration of all
            organisms and
            decomposition.
Diurnal pattern of DO
          • Diurnal pattern of
            DO in sea shallows
            control the
            vertical migration
            of zooplankters
            and fish
Salinity
• Definition: Total amount of solid materials in
  grams dissolved in one kilogram of sea water
  when all the carbonate has been converted
  to oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by
  chlorine and all organic matter completely
  oxidized.
• It is calculated by Knudsen’s formula

• It is referred by ppt (part per thousand or % )
• Salinity is an ecological factor of considerable
  importance, influencing the types of
  organisms that live in a body of water.
• Marine waters are those of the ocean,
  another term for which is euhaline seas. The
  salinity of euhaline seas is 30 to 35. Brackish
  seas or waters have salinity in the range of
  0.5 to 29 and metahaline seas from 36 to 40
• On average, seawater in the world's oceans
  has a salinity of about 35 ppt.
• Although the vast majority of seawater has
  a salinity of between 31 ppt and 38 ppt,
  seawater is not uniformly saline throughout
  the world.
• Climate, weather, currents and seasons can
  all have an affect on salinity.
Extremes of salinity
• Where mixing occurs with fresh water
  runoff from river mouths or near melting
  glaciers, seawater can be substantially
  less saline.
• The most saline open sea is the Red Sea
  (41 ppt), where high rates of evaporation,
  low precipitation and river inflow, and
  confined circulation result in unusually
  salty water.
• The salinity in isolated bodies of water like,
  the Dead Sea ranges between 300 and
  400 ppt.
Conveyor belt




• The degree of salinity in oceans is a driver of the
  world's ocean circulation, where density changes
  due to both salinity changes and temperature
Salinity tolerance
• Euryhaline organisms are able to adapt to a wide range
  of salinities. An example of a euryhaline fish is the molly
  (Poecilia sp.) which can live in fresh, brackish, or salt
  water. The European shore crab (Carcinus maenas) is an
  example of a euryhaline invertebrate that can live in salt
  and brackish water. Euryhaline organisms are commonly
  found in habitats such as estuaries and tide pools where
  the salinity changes regularly. However, some organisms
  are euryhaline because their life cycle involves migration
  between freshwater and marine environments, as is the
  case with salmon and eels.
• The opposite of euryhaline organisms are stenohaline
  ones, which can only survive within a narrow range of
  salinities.
• Salinity tolerance leads to zonation in
  estuarine plants and animals. Estuarine
  organisms have different tolerances and
  responses to salinity changes.
• Many bottom-dwelling animals, like
  oysters and crabs, can tolerate some
  change in salinity, but salinities outside an
  acceptable range will negatively affect
  their growth and reproduction, and
  ultimately, their survival.
• Some groups of animals, such as the
  echinoderms, which include animals such
  as sea stars, brittle stars and sea
  cucumbers, have very few species living
  in estuaries because of their low
  tolerance of reduced salinity.
Sturgeon   Molly




Carcinus maenas
Stenohaline fish



Goldfish                      Haddock


                          Sea cucumber




             Br Star
Osmoregulation
pH
• pH is generally understood to be an
  expression of acidity or the hydrogen
  ion (H+) concentration in water. The
  value is a negative (reciprocal)
  logarithm, which means that acidity
  increases as the value decreases and
  that each unit change reflects a 10-
  fold change(logarithmic).
• Normal pH values in sea water are
  about 8.1 at the surface and decrease
  to about 7.7 in deep water.
• Many shellfish and algae are more
  sensitive than fish to large changes in
  pH, so they need the sea’s relatively
  stable pH environment to survive.
• pH balance is one of the biggest factors
  in affecting marine life. The ocean
  absorbs vast amounts of carbon dioxide
  from the atmosphere, which reacts with
  the water and produces carbonic acid.
  This causes the water's natural pH
  balance to lower to an increased acidic
  level. This damages marine life because it
  destroys the essential calcium in the
  water that is needed to build their
  internal and external skeletons.
• Shallow waters in subtropical regions
  that hold considerable organic matter
  often vary from pH 9.5 in the daytime
  to pH 7.3 at night. Organisms living in
  these waters are able to tolerate these
  extremes
• As the carbon dioxide is absorbed, it
  reacts with the ocean water to form
  carbonic acid. This process is called
  ocean acidification. Over time, this
  acid causes the pH of the oceans to
  decrease, making ocean water more
  acidic.
Thank You

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Fishery Science: Marine water parameters sudeshrathod

  • 1. Marine water parameters Prof. S D Rathod B N Bandodkar College of Science Thane, Maharashtra, India
  • 2. Temperature • Global water surface temperature
  • 3. • Picture courtesy NASDA/NASA This is an image of global sea surface temperatures taken from Japan National Space Development Agency's (NASDA) AMSR-E instrument aboard NASA's Aqua spacecraft on August 27, 2003. The colors in this false-color map represent temperatures of the ocean's surface waters, ranging from a low of -2 C (28 F) in the darkest green areas to a high of 35 C (95 F) in the brightest yellow-white regions. Sea ice is shown as white and land is dark gray.
  • 4. Temperature • Thermo-haline surface circulation: Thermohaline circulation simply refers to global density-driven circulation (convection) of the oceans.
  • 5. Oceanic currents • Trade winds cause circles near equator • Westerly winds carry polar water towards equator • Labrador current –very cold • Equator currents slosh towards east after continetal heating • Gulf currents –very warm
  • 6. • The flow of cold, saline surface water (blue) downward and toward the equator can only be clearly recognized in the Atlantic. Warm surface water (red) flows in the opposite direction,
  • 7. Factors affecting: Oceanic currents • Another key factor that influences ocean currents is the density of seawater. Both temperature and salinity contribute to seawater density, thus local changes in temperature and the magnitude of freshwater inputs from rivers and streams can alter near shore ocean currents.
  • 8. Marine upwelling • Winds near the peninsula push warm water away from the surface allowing deep, cool, nutrient-rich water to rise, bringing nourishment to plankton, the basis of the oceanic food web. This process of upwelling is essential to the ocean oasis. • Remains of dead, decomposing organisms sink to the ocean bottom making these deep, cold waters rich in nutrients. However, it is in the upper, sunlit layers of the ocean that phytoplankton (very small drifting plants) are able to utilize these nutrients.
  • 10. Temp. Tolerance • Eurythermic species • Stenothermic species • There are many different ecosystems within the ocean depending on conditions such as the water temperature, the amount of sunlight that filters through the water, and the amount of nutrients. • Sunlight breaks through the top layer of ocean water. It can make its way as deep as 200 meters (656 feet). • Almost all marine life (about 90%) lives within this top, sunlit layer of the ocean. • The temperature of ocean water varies depending on its location. Water near the polar regions is colder than water near the equator. Water that is deep in the ocean is colder than water that is near the ocean surface. • Many animals and other organisms can only survive at certain temperatures. • Others are able to survive at wide range of temperatures and can live in more places in the ocean.
  • 11. Temperature tolerance and Migration • Because cold-blooded fish live within a small temperature range (stenothermic). • Many fish try to stay within what is called their thermal optimum — not too warm, not too cold — just right. This thermal optimum varies for different species. • Water temperature is a key factor for fly fishermen who chase striped bass and other game fish along the Atlantic seaboard. • In spring, as the ocean starts to warm, the first arrivals from the south will be striped bass and bluefish, followed later by bonito and little tunny (false albacore). • This pattern reverses itself as the water starts to cool in the fall, when the albies and bonito generally head south first. Looking in more detail at the stripers, their spring migration may be more closely tied to the northward migration of prey, such as herring, which in turn are probably influenced by warming water and spawning urges.
  • 12. Extreme temperature • Tidal pools 40ºC • Deep sea sulfur vents 380ºC
  • 13. Antarctic creatures • About 200 species have been discovered. These include midges, mites and tardigrades. • Krill are found in huge swarms which cover hundreds of kilometers in the waters around Antarctica. • Many of the fish that live in Antarctica have 'antifreeze' in their bodies to stop their body fluids from freezing. Seaweeds, sponges, corals, worms, sea anemones and sea spiders are just some of the creatures to be found on the bottom of the Antarctic oceans.
  • 17. Global warming affecting (changes in) oceanic temperature • Courtesy NOAA Three-dimensional view of projected surface air temperature and ocean warming due to greenhouse gases as calculated by a low-resolution GFDL coupled ocean-atmosphere climate model.
  • 18. LIGHT • The visible light spectrum is the section of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum that is visible to the human eye. It ranges in wavelength from approximately 400 nm to 700 nm and is also known as the optical spectrum of light. Electromagnetic spectrum
  • 19. Fate of light in aquatic systems: • Reflection - prevented from entering water by air- water surface interface • Scattering - suspended particles reflect light at a massive array of angles • Absorption - diminution of light by transformation into heat energy
  • 20. Visible light penetration • Visible light penetrates into the ocean, but once past the sea surface, light is rapidly weakened by scattering and absorption (coastal water). The more particles that are in the water, the more the light is scattered. This means that light travels farther in clear water (open ocean).
  • 21. Light: Oceanic Zonation • 45% of red and 2% of blue light is absorbed for every meter of depth. • Euphotic zone (00 to 200 m) • Disphotic zone (200 to 1000 m) • Aphotic zone (1000 to 4000 m) • Abyssal zone more than 4000 m.
  • 23. Photic zone animals • he dark backs and light undersides of • these near-surface fish help them match • their environment in the open ocean. To • a predator looking from above, their dark • backs seem to blend into the dark depths. • From the side, their lighter sides blend • with the sunlit water
  • 25. Deep sea animals • Several organisms living in ocean depths have red coloration. Their red color effectively makes them “disappear” in the inky darkness, because no red wavelengths are present. • Many deep sea organisms are able to produce their own light, called bioluminescence. Some animals, like the viperfish, possess bioluminescent organs on their bellies. As they migrate upwards to find food in shallower depths, where some visible light does penetrate, the bioluminescent organs on their bellies brighten.
  • 28. Many bristlemouth species, such as the "spark angle -mouth" above, are also bathypelagic ambush predators which can swallow prey larger than themselves.
  • 29. Light: Vertical migration • Figure 1. Vertical distribution of the sardine (Sardina pilchardus) in the Thracian Sea. The dots show the observed average depths, and the solid line shows the predicted average depth of the distribution according to a cosine function model based on the time of day.
  • 30. • Plankton at the sea surface is consumed by vertically migrating midwater fishes and squids. The daily migrations of these midwater species take them to the surface at night to feed, and to depths below 500 meters during the day. This helps them avoid predators by keeping them in constant darkness. However, these vertical migrators decend on the bottom during daytime (downward migrations), are available to bottom dweller wreckfish to consume them. This vertical migration completes a transfer of energy from sunlit surface layers to the dark depths where wreckfish dwell
  • 31. • Marine zooplankton perform daily excursions (i.e., vertical migrations) up and down in the water column, with changing levels of light triggering these daily migrations. For example, the classic pattern consists of zooplankton residing deep in the water column during the day when light levels are high. They ascend at dusk to the surface waters where they graze on phytoplankton at night.
  • 32. • Red flabby whale fish make nightly vertical migrations into the lower mesopelagic zone to feed on copepods.
  • 34. Oxygen • Oxygen is a very important gas in the ocean because of its role in biological processes. Marine plants such as phytoplankton , seaweed, and other types of algae produce organic matter from carbon dioxide and nutrients through photosynthesis , the process that produces oxygen. • The upper 10 to 50 meters (33 to 164 feet) of the ocean can be highly supersaturated with oxygen owing to photosynthesis.
  • 35. Factors governing DO • Atmospheric pressure, temperature and the rates of photosynthesis and decomposition. • Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis and consumed during respiration and decomposition (compensation depth). The latter processes occur throughout the day and night, while the former occurs only during the day. For this reason, dissolved oxygen levels are often lowest just before dawn before photosynthesis resumes. • Since the concentration of oxygen in our atmosphere is about 21%, and only a fraction of 1% in water, oxygen seeks equilibrium by dissolving into water. This diffusion is increased by any turbulent flow over riffles in the creek, or by wind-driven waves both of which increase the surface area through which the diffusion can occur. • The other major control of DO concentration is water temperature. Cold water can hold more dissolved gas than warm water.
  • 36. Relationship between temperature and DO • Oxygen has limited solubility in water, usually ranging from 6 to 14 mg L -1 • Oxygen solubility varies inversely with salinity, water temperature and atmospheric and hydrostatic pressure.
  • 38. DO at different depths • Surface is richest due to surface diffusion and photosynthesis • Minimal zone where respiration exceeds the photosynthesis • The deeper zone retains oxygen due to less respiration and decomposition rate
  • 39. Oxygen regime at depths • Compensation depth is the balance between the photosynthesis of phytoplankters and the oxygen cosumed in respiration of all organisms and decomposition.
  • 40. Diurnal pattern of DO • Diurnal pattern of DO in sea shallows control the vertical migration of zooplankters and fish
  • 41. Salinity • Definition: Total amount of solid materials in grams dissolved in one kilogram of sea water when all the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromine and iodine replaced by chlorine and all organic matter completely oxidized. • It is calculated by Knudsen’s formula • It is referred by ppt (part per thousand or % ) • Salinity is an ecological factor of considerable importance, influencing the types of organisms that live in a body of water.
  • 42. • Marine waters are those of the ocean, another term for which is euhaline seas. The salinity of euhaline seas is 30 to 35. Brackish seas or waters have salinity in the range of 0.5 to 29 and metahaline seas from 36 to 40 • On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 35 ppt. • Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 ppt and 38 ppt, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. • Climate, weather, currents and seasons can all have an affect on salinity.
  • 43. Extremes of salinity • Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths or near melting glaciers, seawater can be substantially less saline. • The most saline open sea is the Red Sea (41 ppt), where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and river inflow, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. • The salinity in isolated bodies of water like, the Dead Sea ranges between 300 and 400 ppt.
  • 44. Conveyor belt • The degree of salinity in oceans is a driver of the world's ocean circulation, where density changes due to both salinity changes and temperature
  • 45. Salinity tolerance • Euryhaline organisms are able to adapt to a wide range of salinities. An example of a euryhaline fish is the molly (Poecilia sp.) which can live in fresh, brackish, or salt water. The European shore crab (Carcinus maenas) is an example of a euryhaline invertebrate that can live in salt and brackish water. Euryhaline organisms are commonly found in habitats such as estuaries and tide pools where the salinity changes regularly. However, some organisms are euryhaline because their life cycle involves migration between freshwater and marine environments, as is the case with salmon and eels. • The opposite of euryhaline organisms are stenohaline ones, which can only survive within a narrow range of salinities.
  • 46. • Salinity tolerance leads to zonation in estuarine plants and animals. Estuarine organisms have different tolerances and responses to salinity changes. • Many bottom-dwelling animals, like oysters and crabs, can tolerate some change in salinity, but salinities outside an acceptable range will negatively affect their growth and reproduction, and ultimately, their survival. • Some groups of animals, such as the echinoderms, which include animals such as sea stars, brittle stars and sea cucumbers, have very few species living in estuaries because of their low tolerance of reduced salinity.
  • 47. Sturgeon Molly Carcinus maenas
  • 48. Stenohaline fish Goldfish Haddock Sea cucumber Br Star
  • 50. pH • pH is generally understood to be an expression of acidity or the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in water. The value is a negative (reciprocal) logarithm, which means that acidity increases as the value decreases and that each unit change reflects a 10- fold change(logarithmic).
  • 51. • Normal pH values in sea water are about 8.1 at the surface and decrease to about 7.7 in deep water. • Many shellfish and algae are more sensitive than fish to large changes in pH, so they need the sea’s relatively stable pH environment to survive.
  • 52. • pH balance is one of the biggest factors in affecting marine life. The ocean absorbs vast amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which reacts with the water and produces carbonic acid. This causes the water's natural pH balance to lower to an increased acidic level. This damages marine life because it destroys the essential calcium in the water that is needed to build their internal and external skeletons.
  • 53. • Shallow waters in subtropical regions that hold considerable organic matter often vary from pH 9.5 in the daytime to pH 7.3 at night. Organisms living in these waters are able to tolerate these extremes
  • 54. • As the carbon dioxide is absorbed, it reacts with the ocean water to form carbonic acid. This process is called ocean acidification. Over time, this acid causes the pH of the oceans to decrease, making ocean water more acidic.