Bonga Exit.pdf for fifteen course that enhance skills

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Short Note of All 15 Exit Exam Courses
Based on the Blue Print
For 4th
Year Students
Compiled By: Course Teachers of DEEL
June, 2023
Bonga, Ethiopia

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Table of Contents
1. Listening Skills....................................................................................................................1
2. Spoken English.....................................................................................................................10
3. Advanced Speech .................................................................................................................20
4. Reading Skills ......................................................................................................................28
5. Sophomore English ..............................................................................................................35
6. Advanced Writing Skills......................................................................................................45
7. Grammar in Use ...................................................................................................................57
8. Introduction to Language and Linguistics............................................................................73
9. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS...................................................................................................90
10. Translation and interpretation ............................................................................................101
11. Fundamentals of literature..................................................................................................110
12. Literary Theory& Criticism ...............................................................................................122
13. Editing................................................................................................................................134
14. Public Relations..................................................................................................................139
15. Research and Report Writing.............................................................................................149

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1. Listening Skills
1.1Hearing vs. Listening
LISTENING
HEARING
Listening is the act of hearing a sound
and understanding what you hear.
Hearing is the act of perceiving sound and
receiving sound waves or vibrations through your
ear.
Listening Requires concentration so that
your brain processes meaning from words
and sentences.
Hearing is one of the five senses and it just
happens all the time – whether you like it or
not – unless you have a hearing problem
Listening leads to learning.
Listening uses different senses, like the
sense of hearing, seeing, or sense of touch.
Hearing simply happens.
Hearing is a skill where you use your ears only.
It is one of the five senses.
Listening is a skill that lets the sound you
hear go through your brain to process the
meaning of it.
Hearing is an involuntary act where you simply
receive vibrations through your ears.
Psychological Physiological
Conscious level Subconscious level
Concentration is required Concentration is not required
1.2Listening Characteristics
There are five key elements of active listening:
1.2.1 Pay attention
Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. Recognize that
nonverbal communication also "speaks" loudly. Look at the speaker directly. Put aside distracting
thoughts. Avoid being distracted by environmental factors. "Listen" to the speaker's body
language. Refrain from side conversations when listening in a group setting.
1.2.2 Show that you are listening
Use your own body language and gestures to convey your attention. Nod occasionally. Smile and
use other facial expressions. Note your posture and make sure it is open and inviting. Encourage
the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like ―Yes‖ and ―Aha‖.

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1.2.3 Provide feedback
Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. As a listener,
your role is to understand what is being said. This may require you to reflect what is being said
and ask questions. Reflect what has been said by paraphrasing. "What I'm hearing is" and
"Sounds like you are saying" are great ways to reflect back. Ask questions to clarify certain
points. "What do you mean when you say", "Is this what you mean?" Summarize the speaker's
comments periodically.
1.2.4 Defer judgment
Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits full understanding of the
message. Allow the speaker to finish. Don't interrupt with counter arguments.
1.2.5 Respond appropriately
Active listening is a model for respect and understanding. You are gaining information and
perspective. You add nothing by attacking the speaker or otherwise putting him or her down. Be
candid, open, and honest in your response. Assert your opinions respectfully. Treat the other
person as s/he would want to be treated.
1.3 Characteristics of Effective and Ineffective Listening
EFFECTIVE LISTENING INEFFECTIVE LISTENING
Listener maintains positive posture;
avoids distracting mannerisms; keeps
attention focused on speaker; maintains
eye contact; nods and smiles when
appropriate
Non-Verbal
Behavior
Listener looks bored,
uninterested, or judgmental;
avoids eye contact; displays
distracting mannerisms (doodles,
plays with a paper clip, etc.)
Listener keeps focus of her comments
on the speaker: "When that happened
what did you do?"
Focus of
Attention
Listener shifts focus of attention
to himself: "When something like
that happened to me, I . . . "
Listener accepts ideas and feelings:
"That's an interesting idea; can you say
more about it?
Acceptance
Listener fails to accept speaker's
ideas and feelings: "I think it
would have been
better to . . . "
Listener empathizes: "So when that
happened, you felt angry." Empathy
Listener fails to empathize: "I
don't see why you felt that . . . "
Listener probes in a helpful way (but
does not cross examine): "Could you tell
me
Listener fails to probe into an
area, to
follow up on an idea or feeling

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more about that? Why did you feel that
way? Listener follows up: "A few
minutes ago you said that . . . "
Probing
Listener paraphrases to guarantee that
she has understood correctly and to
assure speaker that this is so Paraphrasing
Listener fails to check the
accuracy of communication by
restating in his own words
important statements made by
the speaker
Listener summarizes the progress of the
conversation from time to time Summarizing
Listener fails to summarize
Listener broadens the range of ideas by
suggesting (or asking the speaker for) a
number of alternatives Advice
Listener narrows the range of
alternatives by suggesting one
"correct" course of action
1.4 Strategies for Effective Listening
1. Be open-minded: The speaker and the listener should be open-minded.
2. Control Emotions: While listening, it is important to keep emotions in control. Neither
the speaker nor the listener should react impulsively.
3. Listen for the gist or the central theme: The listener should not stress only on facts and
must listen for the gist or the central theme of what the speaker says.
4. Concentrate on the non-verbal cues: The listener must concentrate on the non-verbal
cues of the speaker in addition to the content of what is being said.
5. Attention to implied content: The speaker may make certain presumptions about the
knowledge of the listener and his/ her familiarity with the subject being discussed. The
listener must pay attention to such implied content in the message and ask for necessary
clarifications wherever required.
6. Make a note of the major points: A good listener takes notes. It is difficult to remember
everything that a speaker communicates, so make a note of the major points, key words,
etc., as this will help you retain information for future use.
7. Feedback: Feedback is essential to keep the communication process going: A good
listener gives immediate feedback in the form of queries, clarifications or requests for extra
information.

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8. Maintain eye contact: Maintain eye contact with the speaker to show interest and
attentiveness. The listener should have the right body language to indicate his/her
attentiveness, understanding and agreement with the speaker‘s ideas.
9. Avoid distractions: The listener should try to avoid or eliminate distractions.
10. Understand the speaker‘s point of view: Try to understand the speaker‘s point of view
and empathize with him/her.
1.5 Qualities of a Good Listener:
A good listener is one who overcomes all the barriers, which hinder listening. (S)he makes
conscious attempts to keep the communication happening. Given below are some characteristics
of a good listener.
A. Proficient: A good listener has good command over language in which the communication is
taking place, whether it is English or some other language. (S)he is able to guess the meanings of
unfamiliar words from the context or sometimes (s)he clarifies the meanings from the speaker by
asking questions.
B. Knowledgeable: To be able to understand a talk, one needs to have background knowledge
about the topic. (S)he does not jump to conclusions and accept or reject the speaker without any
reason. (S)he is prudent and knowledgeable.
C. Active: An effective listener involves actively in listening to anybody. (S)he is critical about
speaker‘s‘ thoughts and ideas. An effective listener involves himself in thinking, evaluating the
ideas and taking notes.
D. Composed: An effective listener is never in a hurry to know what the speaker is going to say.
He is cool, composed and quiet. S/he waits patiently till the speaker completes his talk and
evaluates the speech. Only then, he forms an opinion about the speech.
In addition to all these an effective listener:
i) Does not sit too close or too far from the speaker;
ii) Does not sit close to air conditioners or any such equipment which may disturb
1.6 How to Listen Effectively?
1. Stop Talking – Be Silent
2. Show Interest
3. Empathize
4. Ask Questions
5. Maintain Eye Contact

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6. Take notes
7. Listen Creatively
8. Put Your Entirety
9. Send feedback
10. Avoid or eliminate distraction
11. Try to gather information about the topic to develop interest and familiarity.
1. LISTENING STRATEGIES
Two processes are involved in listening. Top-down listening uses background knowledge and
contextualize words to aid comprehension. Bottom-up listening uses sounds, words, and other
small units to create meaning. These processes are complementary; listening for only the big
picture but not the details can be as ineffective as trying to understand every single word your
lecturer says.
2.1Top-down/Using background Knowledge
Do you ever get your students to predict the content of a listening activity beforehand, maybe
using information about the topic or situation, pictures, or key words? If so, you are already
helping them to develop their top-down processing skills, by encouraging them to use their
knowledge of the topic to help them understand the content. This is an essential skill given that, in
a real-life listening situation, even advanced learners are likely to come across some unknown
vocabulary. By using their knowledge of context and co-text, they should either be able to guess
the meaning of the unknown word, or understand the general idea without getting distracted by it.
Other examples of common top-down listening activities include putting a series of pictures or
sequence of events in order to listening to conversations and identifying where they take place,
reading information about a topic then listening to find whether or not the same points are
mentioned, or inferring the relationships between the people involved.
2.2Bottom-up/ Listening for Main Ideas
The emphasis in EFL listening materials in recent years has been on developing top-down
listening processes. There are good reasons for this given that learners need to be able to listen
effectively even when faced with unfamiliar vocabulary or structures. However, if the learner
understands very few words from the incoming signal, even knowledge about the context may not
be sufficient for her to understand what is happening, and she can easily get lost. Of course, low-
level learners may simply not have enough vocabulary or knowledge of the language yet, but
most teachers will be familiar with the situation in which higher-level students fail to recognise
known words in the stream of fast connected speech. Bottom-up listening activities can help
learners to understand enough linguistic elements of what they hear to then be able to use their
top-down skills to fill in the gaps.

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The following procedure is for developing bottom-up listening skills, and is designed to help
learners recognise the divisions between words, an important bottom-up listening skill. The
teacher reads out a number of sentences, and asks learners to write down how many words there
would be in the written form. While the task might sound easy, for learners the weak forms in
normal connected speech can make it problematic, so it is very important for the teacher to say
the sentences in a very natural way, rather than dictating them word-by-word.
2.3Listening for Main Ideas
The main idea of a speech is often repeated. Listen carefully to the introductory and concluding
remarks of the speech and remember which points are mentioned in both. If the main points are
mentioned in the introduction or in the conclusion, they should also be expanded and emphasized
in the main body of the speech.
2.4Listening for Specific Ideas
Specific information is often factual in nature, for example, a name, a place, a profession, an
object, a number or a quantity. When you listen for specific information, you need to have some
idea of what you‘re listening for before you listen and while you‘re listening. In an exam situation,
predict and anticipate the kind of information that will answer the question, being aware that the
idea you‘re listening for could be expressed in the recording in a number of different ways. As you
listen, you need to recognise when the information is about to be given, and pay particularly close
attention at that point. Sometimes, listening for specific information also involves listening to
determine whether information is stated or not.
2.5Listening for Details
Listening for detail refers to the type of listening we do in which we can‘t afford to ignore
anything because we don‘t know exactly what information of the listening passage will be
necessary to complete the task.
This term is sometimes confused with listening for specific information which is applied to
occasions in which we don‘t have to understand everything that‘s being said, but only a very
specific part
2.6Listening for Organization
Organizational listening is the process of understanding the thoughts and feelings of employees
to create a better workplace.
2. TYPES OF LISTENING
1. Active listening/Comprehensive Listening.
2. Sensitive/Empathetic Listening.
3. Critical Listening.

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4. Appreciative Listening.
3.1Active/Comprehensive listening:
i. This is the best and most important type of listening. The listener undergoes all the steps of
the listening process. This is also called Comprehensive Listening.
ii. The listener not only understands everything but also attempts to verify all that she/he has
been listening to.
iii. The queries and clarifications on the part of the listener in the form of feedback keep the
communication process going.
iv. The goal is to evaluate the message at all levels: the logic of the argument, strength of
evidence, validity of the conclusions, the implications of the message to the listener and his /
her organization and the Speaker‘s intentions and motives.
v. However, the speaker too has a responsibility in facilitating active listening! The speaker has
to convey his/her message in such a way that the listener does not get bored or is distracted.
3.2 Sensitive/Therapeutic/Empathic Listening:
i. Sensitive listening is also referred to as empathic listening as the listener puts himself/herself
in the position of the speaker and tries to understand the viewpoint of the speaker as intended by
him/her.
ii. The listener attempts to decipher the meaning of the statements made by the speaker in
relation to the perceptions and experiences of the speaker.
iii. Empathic listening helps to build healthy human relations. Counselors and psychologists
adopt this type of listening.
iv. Though sensitive listening is a desirable type of listening, the only disadvantage we
encounter is the ‘one-sided sympathetic stand‘ Which can lead to misinterpretation of the
message due to misplaced empathy.
v. However, sensitive listening taken in combination with active listening, where the
viewpoints/frames of reference of the speaker and listener match, can prove to be an excellent
and effective form of listening.
3.3Critical Listening:
(Listening to Evaluate and Analyses)
i. Critical listening is a highly active type of listening. It is used when great focus is needed to
solve a problem, to decide, to evaluate what is being said or scrutinize a work.

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ii. Critical listening is similar to critical reading. In critical listening, receiving information is
not the Objective. It involves analyzing the information based on previous knowledge in order
to pass judgment.
iii. In critical listening, the listener asks himself questions like 'what is the speaker trying to say‘
what is the main argument being presented‘, is what I am listening different from what I
know/believe‘, etc.
iv. It is important in critical listening to have an open mind. A listener with biases,
preconceived ideas, and other stereotypes cannot be a critical listener.
v. Critical listening is important in problem solving, broadening one‘s knowledge and
improving relationships through better understanding.
3.4Appreciative Listening:
(Listening to Enjoy)
i. Appreciative listening is exactly what the name implies listening to enjoy the story, music or
information.
ii. The person listens to the matter that he appreciates. This is to understand the speaker‘s mind-
set, needs, tone, and mood to appreciate a point of view. This type of listening involves Skills
such as interpreting, visualizing, and understanding.
4. INTERPRETIVE LISTENING
4.1Author‘s Attitude/Tone/Mood
Attitude is the author‘s personal feelings about a subject.
Attitude can be difficult for students to grasp if they do not have at least some background
information about the topic and/or the author.
Tone is the use of stylistic devices to reveal that personal feeling.
Mood-The reader will come away from the text with some kind of feeling, happy, sad, inspired, or
even bored. The careful reader will use his/her skills to grasp the author‘s attitude and tone, and
thereby will respond with the mood the author intended.
4.2Context
Imagery –development of vivid mental impressions by appeals to the senses. Appeals to Sight,
Sound, Touch, Smell, and Taste depending on the text. Any combination of these can be used.
Techniques: metaphors, similes, metonymy, synecdoche, and literal, concrete descriptions.
Details –information emphasized or excluded. Does the writer allude to important information
without directly discussing it? Does he repeat certain concepts? Techniques: repetition, allusion,
etc.

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Language –general written communication techniques reveal author‘s attitude through his/her
written expression in general.
Syntax –effect of sentence structure on intended meaning shows the author‘s intended
perspective through his writing format: Simplistic/Complex structure –Is the structure of the
sentences basic to reveal simplicity of the topic, character, or theme; or is it complex to show
topic importance, character intelligence/depth, or seriousness of the theme?
4.3Para linguistics
Paralinguistic has to do with the aspects of language that do not relate to the formal systems of
language such as phonology, syntax, grammar etc. The features of paralinguistic fall into two
categories. The categories are vocal-paralinguistic and body paralinguistic features
Vocal Paralinguistic Features
A high tone can indicate nervousness or a question and even anger in some people. A low tone
indicates doubt or authority in some people. All of these features convey intention and are
influenced by circumstance
Body Paralinguistic Features
Paralinguistic Features of the body is how we communicate meaning through the use of our
bodies. Facial expression is one example. When we frown, smile, raise our eyebrows, etc. these
all share different forms of information.
Proximity is how close two people are when communicating. Normally, the closer two people
are the more intimate. Many people keep a certain distance from their boss when communicating.
Posture is another feature. Slouching indicates laziness. When a person holds their head down it
is often a sign of inferiority.

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2. Spoken English
Identifying main idea of a conversation
Main idea is a general statement about a conversation (or reading selection). The main idea is a
sentence that provides the subject for discussion; it is the topic. It is usually supported by a list of
details. If you can tell what the supporting details have in common, you can discover the main
idea. A main idea is important information that tells more about the overall idea of a
conversation.
There are two types of main idea.
1. Stated main idea is a main idea that the author directly states in the passage.
2. Implied main idea is a main idea that the author doesn‘t directly state, but you are able to
figure it out from the details in the passage.
By following these steps, you should be able to identify the main idea of a conversation.
1. Listen carefully: Pay attention to what the speakers are saying and try to understand the context
of the conversation.
2. Look for repeating themes: Identify any recurring topics or ideas that are mentioned throughout
the conversation.
3. Identify key phrases: Look for important words or phrases that summarize the main idea of the
conversation.
4. Consider the tone: Consider the tone of the conversation and how it may relate to the main idea.
5. Summarize: Once you have listened to the conversation, try to summarize the main idea in one
or two sentences.
Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. What is the first step in identifying the main idea of a conversation?
A. Look for repeating themes
B. Identify key phrases
C. Listen carefully
2. What should you do if there are recurring topics or ideas in a conversation?
A. Ignore them
B. Write them down
C. Identify them
3. How can the tone of a conversation relate to the main idea?

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A. It can indicate whether the main idea is positive or negative
B. It has no relation to the main idea
C. It can indicate the level of importance of the main idea
4. What should you do once you have listened to a conversation?
A. Repeat everything back to the speakers
B. Try to summarize the main idea in one or two sentences
C. Ask the speakers to repeat themselves
5. What is the main idea of the following conversation?
Person A: "I heard there's a new restaurant that opened downtown."
Person B: "Yes, I went there yesterday. The food was delicious!"
Person C: "I should check it out too. What type of cuisine do they serve?"
Person D: "I'm not a fan of restaurants. I prefer cooking at home."
A. Person A's recommendation to try a new restaurant
B. Person B's positive review of the restaurant
C. Person C's interest in the restaurant's cuisine
D. Person D's preference for cooking at home
Person A: "I can't believe how much traffic there was today."
Person B: "Yeah, the roads were completely jammed. I was late for work."
Person C: "I think there was an accident on the highway."
Person D: "Traffic seems to be getting worse every day."
A. Person A's frustration with the traffic
B. Person B's tardiness due to the traffic
C. Person C's explanation for the traffic congestion
D. Person D's observation about increasing traffic
Person A: "Did you watch the game last night?"
Person B: "Yes, it was an intense match. The final score was 3-2."
Person C: "I missed it. Who scored the winning goal?"
Person D: "I'm not a big sports fan. I prefer watching movies."
A. Person A's question about watching the game
B. Person B's comment on the intensity of the match
C. Person C's interest in the winning goal scorer
D. Person D's preference for watching movies

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Person A: "I'm thinking of taking a trip to Europe next summer."
Person B: "That sounds like a great idea! Which countries are you planning to visit?"
Person C: "I've always wanted to see Paris and Rome."
Person D: "I prefer staying closer to home and exploring local destinations."
A. Person A's plan to travel to Europe
B. Person B's enthusiasm for the trip
C. Person C's desired destinations in Europe
D. Person D's preference for local travel
Person A: "I'm so tired. I didn't sleep well last night."
Person B: "You should try drinking some herbal tea before bed."
Person C: "I find that reading a book helps me relax and fall asleep."
Person D: "I don't have any trouble sleeping. I can sleep anywhere!"
A. Person A's complaint about not sleeping well
B. Person B's suggestion to drink herbal tea
C. Person C's recommendation to read before bed
D. Person D's statement about easy sleep
Person A: "Did you hear about the new museum that opened downtown?"
Person B: "Yes, it's supposed to have a great collection of modern art."
Person C: "I'm planning to visit this weekend. I love contemporary art."
Person D: "I'm not a big fan of museums. I find them boring."
A. Person A's mention of the new museum
B. Person B's comment on the museum's art collection
1. Drawing inference from a dialogue
Drawing inferences from dialogue involves using context clues, tone, and nonverbal cues to
understand the underlying meaning of what is being said. Meaning is very closely related to the
human capacity to think logically and to understand. If a reader goes through any word, he/she
needs to understand the meaning of this particular word and understand the meaning correctly.
There are at least seven types of meaning in semantics.
1. Conceptual Meaning
2. Connotative Meaning
3. Social Meaning
4. Affective Meaning

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5. Reflected Meaning
6. Collective Meaning
7. Thematic meaning
1. Conceptual/ denotative meaning
The denotative meaning of a word is its main meaning, not including the feelings and ideas
that people may connect with that word. Denotative meaning is dictionary/ direct/ literally
meaning of a word.
Example:
 donkey------ domestic animal
 lion ------ wild animal
 kid--- under age children
 hyena---- wild animal
2. Connotative Meaning
Connotation points to a meaning that uses a particular word beyond its conceptual meaning. That
means when a word has more than one meaning, it is called connotative meaning. It is also called
implied meaning.
Example:
 Donkey----- idiot
 Lion--- brave
 Kid--- innocent
 Hyena---- big eater
3. Social Meaning
It is a type of meaning based on the aspects of society. When people from a particular society
define language in their way, that is called social meaning. This meaning is based on dialect.
4. Affective Meaning
It refers to the speaker‘s feelings, emotions, attitude towards the ongoing context: the pitch level,
intonation, and tone of the speaker changes based on the situation.
For example, if we talk with a motherless child, we will be very emotional, and we will talk in a
very soft manner. In the same way, when we become angry, our voices become louder.
5. Reflected Meaning
In semantics, reflected meaning is an event whereby a particular word or phrase is correlated with
multiple sense or meaning. It is a kind of irony.
6. Collocative Meaning

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A collocation is a familiar grouping of words, especially words that habitually appear together and
convey meaning by association. In collocative meaning, a particular word goes with another
particular word.
Pretty and handsome share familiar ground in the meaning ‗good-looking,‘ but these words are
different at their appropriate use case.
Example:
1. Pretty is appropriate for – girl, woman
2. Handsome is appropriate for – boy, man
7. Thematic Meaning
Thematic meaning is a preference between alternative grammatical structures like active-passive,
simple to complex, complex-compound, etc. That means the meaning of a sentence will be the
same, but the structure will differ from each other. It deals with how the speaker portrays the
message through word choice, the order of words used, and emphasis.
Example:
1. He is so week that he cannot work. (This is a complex sentence).
2. He is too week to walk. (This is a simple sentence).
Here the structures of the sentences are different, but the meaning is the same.
By following these steps, you can draw inferences from dialogue that go beyond the literal
meaning of the words spoken.
1. Pay attention to the tone of the conversation. Is it friendly, hostile, or neutral? This can give you
a clue about the speaker's intentions.
2. Look for nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, body language, and gestures. These can
reveal emotions or attitudes that may not be explicitly stated.
3. Consider the context of the conversation. What is the setting? Who are the speakers? What is
the topic of discussion? All of these factors can influence the meaning of the dialogue.
4. Listen for implied meanings or hidden messages. Sometimes speakers may say one thing but
mean something else entirely.
5. Use your own knowledge and experience to fill in any gaps or make connections between what
is being said and what you already know.
In addition to these, you should ask yourself the following questions when you infer meaning from
a dialogue:
 Who - Does this passage discuss a person or group of people?
 When - Does the information contain a reference to time?

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 Where - Does the text name a place?
 Why - Do you find a reason or explanation for something that happened?
 How - Does this information indicate a method or a theory?
Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives
1. What emotion is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I can't believe you did
that!"
A. Anger B. Sadness C. Excitement D. Happiness
2. What tone is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "Wow, that's amazing!"
A. Sarcasm B. Enthusiasm C. Disbelief D. Indifference
3. What emotion is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I'm really sorry for what I
said earlier."
A. Regret B. Anger C. Happiness D. Excitement
4. What tone is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I guess we'll just have to
agree to disagree."
A. Defeatist B. Diplomatic C. Sarcastic D. Aggressive
5. What emotion is conveyed by the speaker in the following sentence: "I'm so proud of you for
achieving your goals!"
A. Pride B. Envy C. Disappointment D. Frustration
6. From the following dialogue, what can be inferred about the speaker's feelings towards their
job?
Speaker 1: "How's work been for you lately?"
Speaker 2: "Honestly, it's been pretty stressful. I feel like I'm always behind on my tasks and
there's never enough time in the day."
A. The speaker enjoys their job and finds it fulfilling.
B. The speaker is indifferent towards their job.
C. The speaker dislikes their job and finds it overwhelming.
D. The speaker is unsure about their feelings towards their job.
6. Sam: ―I can‘t wait for science class today‖.
Robbie: ―Why? What is happening in science class?‖

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Sam: ―Mrs. Barkley said we will be conducting our science experiments today on the water
cycle! I can‘t wait to see our results. I have never done a science experiment before! I don‘t really
know what to expect.‖
Robbie: ―Wow, that is cool, I have never done one either, I can‘t wait to hear all about it on our
walk home from school today.‖ said Robbie.
From this dialogue, which one is not correct?
A. Sam is excited about science class.
B. Robbie is not excited.
C. Both Sam and Robbie are excited.
D. Sam is excited about science class.
7. Person A: "I can't find my keys anywhere."
Person B: "Did you check your jacket pocket?"
What can you infer from Person B's response?
A. Person B has seen the keys in the jacket pocket.
B. Person B is suggesting a possible location for the keys.
C. Person B is annoyed with Person A's forgetfulness.
D. Person B doesn't know where the keys are either.
8. Person A: "I failed my math test."
Person B: "Well, maybe you should have studied more."
A. Person B is offering sympathy to Person A.
B. Person B is blaming Person A for the failure.
C. Person B is suggesting a different study method.
D. Person B is disappointed in Person A.
9. Person A: "I heard Sarah got a promotion."
Person B: "She worked really hard for it."
A. Person B is happy for Sarah's promotion.
B. Person B is jealous of Sarah's promotion.
C. Person B believes Sarah didn't deserve the promotion.
D. Person B is surprised by Sarah's promotion.
10. Person A: "I don't feel well today."
Person B: "You should get some rest and drink plenty of fluids."

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A. Person B is suggesting a remedy for feeling unwell.
B. Person B doesn't think Person A's illness is serious.
C. Person B is offering sympathy for Person A's condition.
D. Person B is annoyed by Person A's complaint.
11. Person A: "I won the lottery!"
Person B: "That's incredible! What are you going to do with the money?"
A. Person B is curious about Person A's plans for the money.
B. Person B is suggesting that Person A should save the money.
C. Person B is uninterested in Person A's lottery win.
D. Person B is disappointed that they didn't win the lottery.
3. Expression of like to talk about things
Like mean:
 to wish to have something.
 to feel attraction toward something.
 to enjoy or approve of something or someone.
Expressions:
 I like…
 I love...
 I adore…
 I ‗m crazy about…
 I‘m mad about…
 I enjoy…
 I‘m keen on…
Example:
1. I like dogs
2. I love cooking
3. I enjoy playing football.
4. I am crazy about pizza.
5. I am fond of rock music.
Ways of expressing likes:
4. Expression of dislikes to talk about things

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Dislike mean:
 a feeling of aversion or disapproval.
 find something/one unpleasant.
 is the feeling that does not like someone or something.
Expressions:
 I don‘t like…
 I dislike...
 I hate…
 I abhor…
 I can‘t bear...
 I can‘t stand…
 I detest...
 I loathe...
Example:
 I don‘t like him
 I can‘t stand these people.
 I hate going to the dentist.
 I'm mad about basketball, but I can‘t bear ice hockey.
 I adore reading poetry, but I loathe doing the housework.
Choose the most appropriate answer to complete the following dialogue
1. Which of the following expressions can be used to express one's likes and dislikes?
A. I'm really into it.
B. I can't stand it.
C. It's not really my thing.
D. All of the above.
2. Mother: _______________
Jack: It was boring.
A. How was your Chinese lesson today?
B. Do you like to learn Chinese?
C. Are you happy?
D. Did you like your lunch today

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3. From the following dialogue, what can be inferred about the speaker's feelings towards their
job?
Speaker 1: "How's work been for you lately?"
Speaker 2: "Honestly, it's been pretty stressful. I feel like I'm always behind on my tasks and
there's never enough time in the day."
A. The speaker enjoys their job and finds it fulfilling.
B. The speaker is indifferent towards their job.
C. The speaker dislikes their job and finds it overwhelming.
D. The speaker is unsure about their feelings towards their job
4. They___________ like taking a bath.
A. is B. don't C. are D. doesn't E. am
5. We __________crazy about Katty Perry
A. do B. don't C. doesn't D. are E. is
6. I hate ___________ to the dentist's.
A. go B. went C. going D. goes
7. I am ___________________ about her because she is so beautiful.
A. Detest B. mad C. like D. abhor
8. I ____________ flowers because they are so beautiful.
A. crazy B. adore C. cannot stand D. loathe
9. A : _______________________?
B : I think it is nice and clean.
A. What do you think of this match C. What do you think about the new apartment
B. How do you feel about the election D. How about watching movie
10. A : I think Abeje is responsible for this case
B : well, I don't know.
from the dialogue, we may assume that __________________
A. B agrees with A C. B disagrees with Farah
B. B has no idea about the case D. B cannot accept the fact
6. A : The government plans to raise the electricity bill next month
B : _______________ it will increase the amount of poor people.
A. I totally disagree B. I agree with you C. I don't disagree D. I agree
7. A : I think the one who is responsible for this case is Michael.
B : _____________ I don't know.
A. B agrees with A C. B has idea about the case

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B. cannot accept the fact D. Mary disagrees with A
3. Advanced Speech
1. What does advanced mean in language proficiency?
Advanced: At the Advanced proficiency level an individual can narrate and describe in past,
present and future time frames. They can communicate in paragraphs on complex situations or
topics and can handle an unexpected complication with grammatical accuracy and fluency.
General objective/Competency
Know the nature of speech
Specific objectives /learning outcomes –
Use expressions of likes to talk about things in public contexts.
Use expressions of dislikes to talk about things
2. The nature of speech
 Natures of communication? 4 Types of Communication: Verbal, Non-verbal, Written,
Visual. The first twos are very important in speech.
 Speaking is a language skill or a mean of communication in which people can express His/her
idea or information to others in spoken form.
 Speaking is the delivery of language through the mouth.
 To speak, we create sounds using many parts of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract,
vocal chords, tongue, teeth and lips. Speaking is the second of the four language skills, which
are: Listening, Speaking.
 It is the process of sharing meanings through audible and visual codes such as voice, facial
expression, gestures, movement, postures, and the like.
 The four basic types of speeches are: to inform, to instruct, to entertain, and to persuade.

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 These are not mutually exclusive of one another.
 You may have several purposes in mind when giving your presentation.
For example, you may try to inform in an entertaining style.
What are the three main aspects of speaking skills?
 The 3 elements are: Words, Voice, and Body Language.
You can see that Verbal (words) is only 7%!
Non-verbal (voice+ body language) makes up a total of 93%.
What are the 7 elements of communication?
The seven elements in the communication process that apply to speech are:
1) Speaker, 2) listener, 3) message, 4) channel, 5) interference, 6) feedback, and 7)
situation.
The speaker is the source of information and communication and is the individual who delivers or
expresses their idea on a topic.
What are the 5 components of speaking?
There are five speaking skills including pronunciation, fluency, grammar, vocabulary and
comprehension.
1. Specific objectives /learning outcomes
1. Use expressions of likes to talk about things in public contexts
2. Ways to Say You dislikes Something in English
3. Use expressions of likes to talk about things in public contexts
1. I enjoy it
This verb means to ―take delight or pleasure in‖ something. After this word, we use a verb with
the –ing suffix. For example: I enjoy reading.
2. I love it
This word can be used as both a noun and a verb, so in order to determine the meaning, it is
necessary to look at the context. We can use the word ―love‖ to express that we really like some
action or thing.
It doesn‘t necessarily have to be a person. For example: I love ice cream. I just love driving. I
love rain in summer.
3. I am passionate about it
This expression means ―to strongly love something or someone; to feel strongly about
something.‖
4. I am fond of it

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This expression may be familiar to you from school. At least, it is to me. It means ―to like; to be
attracted to.‖ For example: I am fond of sports. We are fond of learning the English
language.
5. I am a fan of it
You‘ve probably guessed the meaning of this expression because the word ―fan‖ exists in other
languages as well. It means ―to like something a lot.‖
For example: I am a fan of skateboarding.
6. I am interested in it
This expression means ―to like; to be attracted to.‖ For example: I am interested in writing articles
about marketing.
7. I am into it
The last phrase to express a preference on our list means ―to like; to enjoy.‖.
For example: I am into Mark I am into painting.
a. Use expressions of dislikes to talk about things
4. Ways to Say You Dislike Something in English
1. I hate/loathe it
You are probably familiar with one of these words, specifically the word ―hate.‖ The second verb
means the same thing, but is an even more forceful word to express this feeling.
For example: I hate being late. I loathe seafood.
2. I can‘t stand it
This English expression means ―to thoroughly dislike; be unable to put up with something or
someone.‖ For example: I can‘t stand cold food. I can‘t stand her talking about Jane‘s failure.
3. I am not a fan of it
If the word not is placed before a form of the verb ―to be,‖ it means that you prefer to avoid the
person or thing you‘re talking about. This expression is not as strong as the word ―hate.‖ For
example: I am not much of a fan of dancing.
4. It drives me crazy
This means ―to greatly exasperate; annoy to distraction.‖ Anything can be used in place of the
pronoun ―it.‖ For example: Impoliteness is driving me crazy. Amy‘s hair left on my comb drives
me crazy.
5. it‘s not my cup of tea
This idiom doesn‘t have anything to do with tea or drinking tea. It means ―to not like.‖ For
example: Horror movies are not my cup of tea. Do you like singing? – No, it‘s not my cup of tea.
6. it‘s not my thing

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Our last expression is similar to the previous one, and means the same thing: ―I don‘t like…‖ or ―I
am not interested in…‖
For example: Cooking is not my thing. Public speeches are not my thing.
 That‘s all. Use these expressions instead of the usual ―I like…‖ and ―I don‘t like…‖
People with whom you speak or exchange messages will enjoy it more as they hear and see the
new English phrases you‘ve just learned.
5. Types of Speech
There are four types of speeches that most speakers utilize in delivering a speech.
5.1.Extemporaneous speech
Extemporaneous speeches are speeches that are carefully prepared and practiced by the speaker
before the actual speaking time. A speaker will utilize notes or an outline as a guide while they are
delivering the speech.
5.2.Impromptu speeches
Impromptu speeches are speeches that are delivered without notes or a plan and without any
formal preparation – they are very spontaneously delivered. They just have to get up and speak
without any ―thinking‖ time.
Your daily life is filled with impromptu experiences and conversations. Every phone
conversation, exchange between you and a loved one, and discussion amongst friends is
impromptu by its very nature – even if we ―practice‖ our conversations, they are still impromptu
in their delivery.
5.3.Manuscript speeches
Manuscript speeches are speeches that are delivered with a script of the exact words to be used.
The speaker who utilizes a complete manuscript will often spend more time looking at the script
than at the audience.
5.4.Memorized speeches
Memorized speeches are speeches that are committed to memory. The speaker completely
memorizes the text of a speech and then delivers the speech from memory without reliance on
notes or an outline. This is a very fearful speaking situation for most people because they fear
they will forget what they had planned on saying when they get in front of the group – and, they
might make a fool of themselves in front of the audience if they forget what to say.
6. Purposes of Speech

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The general purpose of any speech will be either to Inform; Motivate/Persuade; or Entertain
your audience.
You may have several purposes in mind when giving your presentation. For example, you may try
to inform in an entertaining style. Another speaker might inform the audience and try to persuade
them to act on the information.
6.1.Informative
This speech serves to provide interesting and useful information to your audience.
Some examples of informative speeches:
A teacher telling students about earthquakes
A student talking about her research
A travelogue about the Tower of London
A computer programmer speaking about new software
6.2.Demonstrative Speeches
This has many similarities with an informative speech. A demonstrative speech also teaches you
something. The main difference lies in including a demonstration of how to do the thing you‘re
teaching.
Some examples of demonstrative speeches:
How to start your own blog
How to bake a cake
How to write a speech
How to… just about anything
1.4.3. Persuasive
A persuasive speech works to convince people to change in some way: they think, the way they
do something, or to start doing something that they are not currently doing.
examples
Television violence is negatively influencing our children
1.4.4. Entertaining
The after-dinner speech is a typical example of an entertaining speech. The speaker provides
pleasure and enjoyment that make the audiences laugh or identify with anecdotal information.
7. Language Use in Speech
7.1.Use of appropriate Language
 Use of proper grammar
 Don't use slang or jargon that may be hard to connect to the meaning or main thought.

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 Avoid weak word choices like "guy", "um", and "everything".
7.2.Use Vivid Language
 through the use of imagery and Rhythm
7.2.1. Imagery
Imagery is the use of language to represent objects, actions, or ideas.
A speaker who uses imagery successfully will tap into one or more of the audience‘s five basic
senses (hearing, taste, touch, smell, and sight). Three common tools of imagery are
concreteness, simile, and metaphor.
7.2.1.1.Concreteness
We attempt to help our audiences see specific realities or actual instances instead of abstract
theories and ideas.
7.2.1.2.Simile
Two unlike things are explicitly compared. All similes contain either ―like‖ or ―as‖ within the
comparison.
Examples:
o After the revelation, she was as angry as a raccoon caught in a cage.
o Love is like a battlefield.
7.2.1.3.Metaphor
Term or phrase is applied to something in a nonliteral way to suggest a resemblance. In the case
of a metaphor, one of the comparison items is said to be the other (even though this is
realistically not possible).
o Love is a battlefield.
o Upon hearing the charges, the accused clammed up and refused to speak
without a lawyer.
o Every year a new crop of activists are born.
7.2.2. Rhythm
Rhythm refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech.
Let‘s examine four types of rhythmic language: parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and
assonance…
Generally Stylistic Devices are
 Alliteration alliteration refers to the repetition of a consonant sound in a series of words.

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 Assonance refers to the repetition of a vowel sound in a string of words. For example, “tilting
at windmills” or “high as a kite” are examples of assonance, because the vowel sound repeats.
 Hyperbole. Hyperbole refers to an exaggeration intended to capture attention and interest.
 Metaphor and Simile. Both devices are types of comparisons. Similes are phrases that compare
one thing to another with the use of the words like or as. For instance, “Life is like a box of
chocolates”.
 Onomatopoeia. This refers to the use of words that sound like they mean. For instance, when
building tension in a narrative, you may suddenly shout, “Bang! Boom!”
 Parallelism and Repetition. Parallelism refers to the repetition of “the same word or
expression at the beginning of successive sentences or phrases” Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.‟s
“I Have a Dream” speech is one in which the use of parallelism and repetition was made
famous.
 Personification. Personification refers to the process of giving an inanimate object human
qualities.
For instance, when describing the rain, you might say that the sky is crying.
7.3.Use Inclusive Language
 Some common problem areas related to language about gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation,
and disabilities.
7.3.1. Gender-Specific Language
There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while speaking: using ―he‖ as
generic, using ―man‖ to mean all humans, and gender typing jobs.
a. Generic ―He‖
The generic ―he‖ happens when a speaker labels all people within a group as ―he‖ when in reality
there is a mixed sex group involved.
b. Use of ―Man‖
Like ―man,‖ ―mankind,‖ and (in casual contexts) ―guys‖ when referring to both females and
males. For example, instead of using the word ―man,‖ you could refer to the ―human race.‖
Instead of saying, ―hey, guys,‖ you could say, ―OK, everyone.‖
c. Gender-Typed Jobs
Speakers sometimes also use a gender-specific pronoun to refer to an occupation that has both
males and females.
―Gender Type Jobs‖ lists some common gender-specific jobs titles along with more inclusive
versions of those job titles.

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Exclusive Language Inclusive Language
Policeman
Businessman
Fireman
Stewardess
Waiters
Barmaid
Mailman
Police officer
Business person
Fire fighter
Flight attendant
Wait staff / servers
Bartender
Letter carrier/ postal worker
7.3.2. Ethnic Identity
Another type of inclusive language relates to the categories used to highlight an individual‘s ethnic
identity. Ethnic identity refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture.
If you want to be safe, the best thing you can do is ask a couple of people who belong to an ethnic
group how they prefer to label themselves.
7.3.3. Sexual Orientation
Another area that can cause some problems is referred to as heterosexism.‖
 Everyone will label their significant others as either ―husbands‖ or ―wives.‖
 Although some members of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender/transsexual
community will use these terms, others prefer for more gender neutral terms like ―spouse‖ and
―partner.‖
7.3.4. Disability
The last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some speakers
relates to individuals with physical or mental disabilities.
Exclusive Language Inclusive Language
Handicapped People
Person in a wheelchair
Crippled
Special needs program
Mentally retarded
Insane Person
People with disabilities
Person who uses a wheelchair
Person with a physical disability
Accessible needs program
Person with an intellectual disability
Person with a psychiatric disability (or label the psychiatric
diagnosis, e.g. ―person with schizophrenia‖)
7.4.Use Familiar Language
You want to make sure that the language you are using is familiar to your audience.

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8. Non-verbal communication
Nonverbal communication types include facial expressions, gestures, paralinguistic such as
loudness or tone of voice, body language, proxemics or personal space, eye gaze, haptics (touch),
appearance, and artifacts.
 Eye Contact (Eye Gaze)
 Space (Proxemics) - The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as
belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, cultural
expectations, situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity.
 Voice Quality and other Prosodic and Paralinguistic Features - A speaker's voice itself can
communicate much to the audience.
The proper use of volume, enunciation (pronunciation/articulation), and tone (sound/voice) can
ensure that the audience can hear, understand, and internalize what the speaker is saying.
 Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This
includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch.
 Personal Appearance, Posture and Movement- Body Language and Posture
 Facial Expressions and Gesture
4. Reading Skills
1. Identify the major purposes of a reading text,
All texts are written for a reason – the writer will have an aim or purpose, for example to
inform the reader or to persuade the reader. Often, texts have more than one purpose.
Identifying the purpose of a text will help you to understand it better. An author‘s purpose may
be to amuse the reader, to persuade the reader, to inform the reader, or to satirize a condition.
An author writes with one of four general purposes in mind:
1. To relate a story or to recount events, an author uses narrative writing.
2. To tell what something looks like, sounds like, or feels like, the author uses descriptive
writing
3. To convince a reader to believe an idea or to take a course of action, the author uses
persuasive writing.
4. To inform or teach the reader, the author uses expository writing.

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An author‘s purpose is reflected in the way he writes about a topic. For instance, if his purpose
is to amuse, he will use jokes or anecdotes in his writing. Clues to an author‘s purpose may be
found in titles, prefaces, and the author‘s background.
If you know how to figure out author‘s purpose you will be able to:
 Recognize bias and decide whether a source of information can be trusted.
 Understand why an author says things in a specific way or includes some facts and not
others
Strategies for Answering Author‘s Purpose Questions:
 Look for key words that identify the question as an author‘s purpose question. If the
question includes any of the author‘s purpose key words listed above, make a note that you
are looking for the author‘s purpose the reason the author wrote the passage. This will help
you focus on the author‘s tone as you read, which in turn will help you identify his or her
purpose.
 Read the passage and make notes. Once you‘ve identified the question as an author‘s
purpose question, read the passage, making note as you read.
 Consider the words an author chooses to use. Word choice is one way authors convey their
meaning when they expect the reader to infer that meaning.
 Consider the vocabulary of your answer options. Is the author really analysing something,
or is she describing it? Use your knowledge of key vocabulary words to eliminate wrong
answers and identify the better answer.
2. Rearrange events/information in a reading text in their order of
occurrence in the text,
Most narrative stories are constructed around a sequence of events. Students gain a deeper
understanding of the story by acting out or retelling the proper order of the important events in
stories, describing cause and effect relationships and how the events affect the central meaning of
the story.
Informational text is also frequently organized around a series or sequence. Historical events are
often presented in chronological order; directions occur in sequence; change follows a logical
order; and scientific observations are usually recorded in a precise order. Curiously, sequencing is
not a natural skill, and many young children recall stories and episodes, not so much through the
sequence of important events, but through a collection of salient features that seemed relevant or
interesting to the student. Often, for example, when a student recalls a favourite movie, the student

30
does not begin at the beginning of the movie and follow the movie‘s plot, but instead recalls action
scenes or describes specific characters.
Sequencing, therefore, is a skill that students must learn in a fairly structured way. Students need
to understand and recreate sequences of events. Students must learn to distinguish important
events from less important ones. They need to understand cause and effect and plot development
and the way characters change over time. These and other academic skills have foundations in
sequencing instruction.
In another hand, Don Johnston Incorporate (2009) that a variety of reading comprehension
objectives requires learners to gather, analyze and organize information about a sequence of
events. Sequencing refers to putting events or action in order. As learners gather notes, they
develop skills that help them create meaningful sequence. Based on Orcutt (2016), sequence
describes the order of events or how to do or how to make something. It refers to the identification
of the component of a story, such as the beginning, middle, and end, and also to the ability to retell
the events within a given text in order which they occurred.
A sequence is the order of events in a story or the process. Knowing the sequence will help us
understand what we are reading. Clue words‖ This is not an extensive list of words, but it is a
great start to helping us understand sequencing.
Sequence Words List
There are many sequence words. They can be grouped by their function in signaling the beginning,
middle, interruption, or end of a story or procedure.
Beginning
 At the beginning - signals an event at the beginning of a story, including a long story.
 Initially - signals an initial state of something that may change later in the story, such as a
person's attitude.
 First - signals the first thing someone did in a story or the first step in a multi-step
procedure, as in ''First, turn on the computer.''
 To begin - signals the first step in a multi-step procedure, as in ''To begin, make sure you
are sitting with good posture and both feet flat on the ground.''
Middle
Then - signals the next event in a story.
After that - signals the next event in a story or the next step in a procedure.
Meanwhile - signals an event that overlapped in time with the previous event described, as in ''I
went to buy groceries. Meanwhile, the dog started tearing up the couch.''
Later - signals that the next event occurred after a lapse of time, as in ''The cat was sound asleep
on the pillow. Later, when I went to check on her, she was gone.''

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Next - signals the next event in a story or the next step in a procedure.
Second - used after 'first' to signal the second step in a procedure.
Third - used after 'first' and 'second' to signal the third step in a procedure.
Interruption
 Suddenly - signals an unexpected event.
 All of a sudden - signals an unexpected event, as in ''I was watching a movie. All of a
sudden, the power went out.''
 But then - signals an unexpected event that could change the direction of the story, as in
''We decided to go to the beach. But then a huge thunderstorm ruined our plans.''
Ending
Finally - signals the last event in a story or an event after a long delay or long sequence of events.
In the end - signals the resolution of a conflict in a story.
At the end - signals the last moment of a period of time and is followed by a prepositional phrase,
as in ''At the end of the performance, the audience gave a standing ovation.''
In conclusion - signals a summary of the main point of an argument.
To conclude - like 'in conclusion,' signals a summary of the main point of an argument.
Compare similar views in a text
Good readers understand new ideas in texts by thinking about how things are alike or different.
They make comparisons between texts and between prior knowledge and new ideas. This
understanding deepens their comprehension. The process of comparing and contrasting is used to
identify how two or more things are alike and different. This skill requires readers to think more
deeply about what they are reading in order to determine these likenesses and differences. This
skill helps children identify language cues, define ideas and clarify thinking, making information
memorable by engaging them in critical thoughts.
Compare is to think about how two things are alike. Contrast is to think about how two things are
different. Key vocabulary words signal that a comparison or contrast is about to be made in text.
These include:-
Contrast although, instead of, however, but not, different from etc
Compare alike, same as, similar to, compared with, as well as etc
Infer contradictions in a text
What Is Contradiction?
Contradictory opinions arise when two given sentences, premise and hypothesis are not
semantically complementary to each other. Using the same logic entailed opinions arises when
given premise and hypotheses are semantically complementary. Contradictions 36 arise from

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relatively obvious features such as antonym, negation, or numeric mismatch. They may also arise
from complex differences in the structure of assertion and lexical contrast. Antonyms are words
that are opposite to each other in their meaning. Negation stands for disproving the corresponding
sentence. Numerical contradiction is finding mismatched numeric expression of similar sentences.
Factive stands for word knowledge or lexical contrast between given pair. Structural contradiction
is finding structural inconsistency between sentences. Lexical, is so like structural (grammar)
contradictory happens when an irregular morph is used with a specific lexical item. Date time
contradictory happens when two similar sentences use two different time expressions.
Premise Hypothesis Contradiction Type
Capital punishment is a
catalyst for more crime.
Capital punishment is a
deterrent to crime.
Antonym
A closely divided Supreme
Court said that juries and not
judges must impose a death
sentence.
The Supreme Court decided
that only judges can impose
the death sentence.
Negation
The tragedy of the explosion
in Qana that killed more than
50 civilians has presented
Israel with a dilemma.
An investigation into the
strike in Qana found 28
confirmed dead thus far.
Numerical
The bombers had not
managed to enter the
embassy.
The bombers entered the
embassy.
Factive
Jacques Santer succeeded
Jacques Delors as president
of the European Commission
in 1995.
Delors succeeded Santer in
the presidency of the
European Commission.
Structural
In the election, Bush called
for U.S. troops to be
withdrawn from the
peacekeeping mission in the
Balkans.
He cites such missions as an
example of how America
must ―stay the course.‖.
Lexical.

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Contradiction occurs when two sentences are extremely unlikely to be true simultaneously. Pairs
such as Sally sold a boat to John and John sold a boat to Sally are tagged as contradictory even
though it could be that each sold a boat to the other. This definition captures intuitions of
incompatibility, and perfectly fits applications that seek to highlight discrepancies in descriptions
of the same event.
Contradictions occur whenever information that is communicated in two different texts is
incompatible. Incompatibilities are manifested in many ways. We have focused on contradictions
that originate when using (i) negation; (ii) antonym; or (iii) semantic and pragmatic information
that is characteristic of contrast discourse relations.
The semantic and pragmatic processes that allow such inferences are typical for the contrast
discourse relations. Contradictions need to be recognized by Question Answering (Q/A) systems
or by Multi-Document Summarization (MDS) systems. The recognition of contradictions is useful
to fusion operators, which consider information originating in different texts. When compatible
and non-redundant information is discovered in different sources, fusion operators select text
snippets from all sources for producing informative answers. However, when contradictory
information is discovered, the answer selects information.
While reading several sources about one subject or while researching a topic, you may be tempted
either to overlook disagreements that don't announce themselves with flags and cannons or to
emphasize differences between texts once you notice any diverging tendencies. In order to make
intelligent judgments about disagreements you must identify points of disagreement accurately
and define exactly what a disagreement consists of.
To identify differences between sources precisely, you first need to determine whether texts are
addressing the same subject. This means determining not just that they have the same general topic
but that they cover the same part of the topic; only then can they answer one question from similar
perspectives.
For example, there are many books about capital punishment. Some discuss the death penalty in
different countries during different periods in history. Others present U.S. statistical studies based
on current death-row sentences. Others offer biographical accounts of individual prisoners on
death row. Many more explore the legal, social, moral, and political consequences of capital
punishment. Some of these books favor the penalty of death. Others oppose it. Still others do not
take a stand on the issue. Only a few books will directly join a specific issue using comparable
data to allow a careful evaluation of alternative answers to a question such as whether the death
penalty has served as a deterrent to crime in the United States during the past decade" Even
statistical studies may not prove helpful, because each study focuses on different states, different
periods of time, and different prison populations, each with a number of complicating factors. No

34
sharply defined contrast has emerged from such statistical studies to point to a clear resolution of
the issue. Once you determine that two texts address the same issue and answer the same question,
you are able to decide whether their answers are compatible or mutually exclusive. Different
answers often exist side by side. The statement "Gun control reduces the total number of guns
available to criminals" is not incompatible with "Gun control also reduces the number of guns
available to honest citizens to defend them." On the other hand, the second statement directly
contradicts the statement "Gun control will not affect the number of guns available to criminals."
Statements that make absolute or strong claims, using words like a/I, never, a/ways, and only, are
likely to conflict with other claims on the subject. Weaker claims that make concessions with
words like in part, along with, one of several, and sometimes are more likely to be compatible with
other statements.
Levels of Disagreement
After you have found two disagreeing sources, you need to identify at what level their
disagreement occurs. Is the disagreement over what the facts are? Is it over the meaning of the
facts? Or is it over the value, consequence, or implications of the facts? Each level of
disagreement can be understood and evaluated in a different way.
Factual Differences
Facts are accounts people give of events. Different people may give different accounts. The
accounts may vary for a number of reasons: imperfect memories or observations, differences in
focus of attention, different styles of expression, different mental attitudes and perceptual
frameworks, interests, or even lying. One eyewitness to an alleged robbery says the suspect was
carrying a gun. Other reports only a suspicious-looking hand in the suspect's pocket. The victim
says a gun was pointed directly at him. The suspect says he carried no weapon and made no threat,
but that he did reach into his pocket to get change in order to make a purchase. Everyone reports
the same incident by telling a different story. Unfortunately, there is no way to know for sure what
actually happened, because to each person the event was experienced—it happened—differently.
Even videotapes of the incident will be biased for the same reasons. The camera operator will have
a particular angle of observation and focus. The camera will record only certain actions. The
operator might experiment with clever camerawork, perhaps editing the footage to support a
special Story. If the robbery itself occurs right in front of police officers trained to be accurate
observers, the officers will still only provide their personal accounts of the event.
Criteria for Evaluating Sources or Witness

35
 Generally, the closer the witness was in time and place to the original events, the better. If
the writer was not there, he or she may cite reliable sources who were.
 The more the writer or primary witness knows about the subject or events he or she is
describing, the better he or she will know what to look for, what to report, and what to
conclude.
The fewer biases and prejudices writers or witnesses have about the matters they are reporting on,
the more likely they are to give an undistorted
5. Sophomore English
Introduction
This short note is designed based on the test blueprint for national exit examination to be held in
2015 E.C . It lets learners focus on paragraph writing. Students are expected to familiarize
themselves with elements of a paragraph.
WRITING EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPH
In this unit, you will be able to:
 Familiarize themselves with elements of a paragraph,

36
 Identify types of paragraph
 Analyze structure of a paragraph.
 . State characteristics of a good paragraph
 Develop a topic sentence workable in a single paragraph.
 Develop well-unified, -cohered and -organized paragraph of different types.
 Differentiate methods of paragraph organization
1. What is a Paragraph?
Definition: Different writers give their own definitions to the paragraph. The followings are some
of these.
Paragraph is defined as a group of related sentences expressing and developing a basic idea, or a
series of related sentences arranged as to explicate single topic, dominant idea or particular phase
of thought. In essence, a paragraph is an expanded sentence, a unit of thought; and a good test of
the thought.
A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one main idea, which is expressed in the topic
sentence, usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a summary sentence,
We can understand from these definitions that the difference between them is simply that of
wording. What are central in the definitions are:
-A paragraph is a group of sentences
-All these sentences together talk about (develop) one idea.
-One of these sentences is broad and carries the main idea of the paragraph.
-A sentence that carries the main idea of the paragraph is called topic sentences.
Generally, a paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one main
idea or point.
A paragraph should have three sentences.
Topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence, are needed for a
paragraph to be complete. The concluding sentence summarizes your main idea by reinforcing
your topic sentence.
1.2.Basic Types of a Paragraph
1.2.1. Expository Paragraph
The purpose for an expository or explanatory paragraph is to give information about a
subject. Expository paragraph can be written by using a combination of all or some of the
following techniques of developing ideas: definition, cause and effect, classification, process
writing, comparison and contrast, illustration, identification and analysis.
Sample Expository Paragraph

37
The ability to write well-organized paragraph is essential to a student‟s success in almost all
university courses. For instance, a student presents his/her ideas in a logical order and clear
language in order to receive a good evaluation of his/her work. Likewise, to write successful
answers to essay questions on examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and
opinions according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly, when a
student writes a report or term paper for different courses, style and organization are often as
important as content to inform and persuade his/her readers. Clearly, skill in paragraph writing is
crucial to success in most university subjects.
1.2.2. Descriptive Paragraph
A description is a form of writing that gives a picturesque of a topic. It shows the reader what a
person, a place, a scene, a thing, a sensation or an emotion is like. Therefore, Descriptive phrases
appeals the five senses: how something feels, smells, sounds, tastes or looks.
Sample descriptive Paragraph
Most students like the freedom they have in college. Usually college students live on their own, in
the dormitory or in an apartment. This means they are free to come and go as they like. Their
parents cannot tell them when to get up, when to go to school, and when to come home. It also
means that they are free to wear what they want. There are no parents to comment about their
hair styles or their dirty jeans. Finally, they are free to listen to their favorite music without
interference from parents.
1.2.3. Narrative
Narration is the telling of a story. It normally involves a discussion of events that are "true" or real,
events that take place over a period of time. Narration helps a writer explain things. To narrate is
to tell a story that explains what happened, when it happened, and who was involved. Narrative
paragraphs will include action, events, and exciting descriptive words. These paragraphs help keep
the reader engaged in the story. Narrative paragraphs are similar to descriptive paragraphs (and a
paragraph actually be both at once), but a narrative paragraph tends to offer the reader more
background information such as past events that led up to or cause events in the story.
Sample Narrative Paragraph
When I was about five years old, I remember doing a lot of exciting things. We had a large mango
trees growing behind our house, and my sister and I climbed them in the summer. One time I fell
out of one of the trees and landed on my head, but I was not badly hurt. We also played baseball in
the backyard with the neighbor kids, and I remember we used my mother‘s dishes for home plate
and the bases. We rode our bikes all over the north end of the town, and we raced through the

38
alleys after a train, splattering water and mud to each other. The high school was only a block
away, so we walked there in the summer, jumped the fence, and skated around the cement
corridors until a custodian chased us out. Finally, there was a big vacant lot beside our house
where we played cowboys and countrymen almost every Saturday. It seems like I did nothing but
play when I was young.
1.2.4. Argumentative Paragraph: In an argumentative paragraph, your purpose is to persuade
readers that your position has merit. You attempt to convince people of the strength of your ideas
by presenting evidence—facts and examples.
Sample argumentative paragraph
The government should not require all citizens pay for health insurance. I am a recent
college graduate and have a decent lob. But my company does not provide me health insurance.
To require me to buy an individual policy is not fair or reasonable. One reason is that such a policy
would be expensive and would take most of my income. As someone is just starting out in
life, my income barely covers my rent and food. If 1 had to buy health insurance, I would have to
take another job, find another roommate or try to find a cheaper apartment. This is just
impossible as life is demanding too much these two and three years. Although the people who
want everyone to have insurance hope that the government plan will provide lower rates for
low-income families and children, they haven't considered how such a requirement will
penalize the many young people who are just getting started. A new system may be needed,
but not one that is unfair to a whole generation of citizens.
2. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS/QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH
1. Unity- unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. All the sentences in a paragraph
should refer to the main idea of a paragraph. all the sentences in the paragraph explain about the
topic sentence of the paragraph.
Example: All insects have three main body parts. These are the head, the thorax, and the
abdomen. The head has a pair of antennae, and a pair of compound eyes. The thorax is the middle
region of the body, and it bears the legs and wings. The abdomen contains many body organs,
such as the heart, respiratory system, digestive system and reproductive system. Even though there
are many different sizes, shapes, and colors of insects, they all have the same body.
2. Coherence- it is the quality that makes your writing understandable. Literally, the word to
cohere means to hold together. A paragraph is said to have coherence when its sentences are
woven together or flow into each other.
You can achieve coherence in your paragraph by using pronoun, repeating key words and several
cohesive devices/traditional markers.

39
Note: transitional words are very important devices in writing. They are useful to make
connections between ideas and make them clear to the readers.
What are commonly used transitional devices? List them
3. Completeness/adequacy- completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If all the
sentences clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then you paragraph is complete. If there
are not enough sentences or enough information to prove your main idea, then the paragraph is
incomplete.
4. Variation- having varieties of sentence types, simple, compound, complex and compound-
complex, in a paragraph gives flavor to the unity and coherence. A paragraph full of very short
sentences sounds like short chunks that break now and then. Likewise, a paragraph full of lengthy
sentences will not be easier for the reader to understand.
Procedures of writing a paragraph
1. Find a topic
 Narrow and modify your topic
2. Plan on the points you have already gathered
 Select only relevant details to develop the topic
 Put them in a logical order
3. Write your first draft
 Develop your topic into a topic sentence and the details into supporting sentences
 Use appropriate cohesive devices to link your sentences together in paragraph
4. Check your paragraph
 Check for the mechanics, spelling, punctuation, capitalization and spacing
VIII. Here you are given an example on how to narrow your topic. Write your paragraph
using the topic and supporting details given at the end.
 The impacts of technology….broad topic need to be narrowed down in to the impacts of TV.
 The impacts of TV…..still broad topic need to be narrowed down into either positive impact of
TV or negative impacts of TV
Topic :Positive impacts of TV.
Topic Sentence: TV/has plenty of positive impacts on the viewers.
Topic / controlling idea
Details:
- Information
-Entertainment -Education

40
METHODS (TECHNIQUES) OF PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
We can develop an idea into a paragraph by using varieties of paragraph development techniques.
The common techniques of paragraph development are:
·Definition
·Contrast
·Exemplification (Illustration)
·Narration
·Classification·
· Cause-effect
- Process
-Comparison
-Description
The following section attempts to present a detailed discussion of these paragraph development
methods/techniques.
1. Definition
One of the most important ways to explain an idea fully is to define it. A definition limits the
thought by classifying it generally and specifically, by telling what it is not or by determining its
precise meaning by fixing its denotation and connotation.
Definition is a method of explaining a word‘s meaning. When you use definition to explain, be
sure to:
 Identify the term you are defining;
 Place the term in the general group and offer a distinguishing characteristic;
 Use one or more examples to classify, explain what the term is not, trace the term‘s meaning over
time, or use description to develop your definition;
 Use transitional words and phrases to connect your ideas.
Sample Definition Paragraph
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person‟s point of view. It is a great asset
in police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed- minded. It will help
them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias and,
instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.

41
2. Exemplification/Illustration
Another technique of paragraph or essay development is illustration or exemplification. The
method of illustration tries to make a general idea clear by providing specific examples and
statistical data that substantiate it.
Exemplification technique is often introduced by transitions like the following: for example ,to
illustrate for instance, such as ,as an illustration, including.
Sample for Exemplification Paragraph
People of various background and ages wear different kinds of t-shirts. Musicians, for example,
wear ragged t-shirts when they perform on stage. Restaurant workers wear t-shirts that mark the
name of the restaurant they work in. children, teens, parents and elderly people wear t-shirts on
which almost anything can be pictured. At concerts, for instance, fans can buy t-shirts stamped
with the name of the group on stage. College students can wear the name of their college on the
shirt. Some popular t-shirts advertise a brand of beer, like „Dashen‟, or a sports goods company
like Adidas. Other tee shirts have political slogans like “Unity with Diversity”. Other people also
wear t-shirts which reflect their religious background. For example, while some Christians wear t-
shirts on which “I Belong to Jesus!” is printed, some people from Muslim backgrounds also wear
shirts with “Alhamdulillah!” From this one can understand that what is written or pictured on t-
shirts is as varied as the people who wear them.
3. Classification
Classification is the arrangement of information into groups or categories in order to make the
relationships among members of the group. Or in other words, it is a method of explaining or
examining a topic by organizing its parts into categories. Classification is the process of putting a
large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-defined groups.
Note: Like the other paragraphs, first you will develop a topic sentence which is convenient for
classification. After finding a topic to classify, establish the central, unique characteristic of each
category. This is a criterion used for selection; the one main idea that helps you put everything into
its proper category.
Sample on Classification Paragraph
Newspapers in India are classified into two categories according to the amount and completeness
of information in them.
4. Cause and Effect
Causes and effects focus on why things happen and what their results or consequences are. Causes
are the reasons why something happened; they answer the question ―Why did the event happen?‖
If your purpose for writing is to determine condition or reason and result or outcome, you should

42
use cause and effect method. Cause and effect analysis states the cause in the topic sentence and
then proceeds to analyze the topic by discussing the effects of the central idea.
Explanations of cause and effects very often use transitions such as the following:
Thus, reasons lead to
Because, a result, brings about
leading to effects there fore
since causes as a result
Here are some other common conjunctions that can be used to express cause and effect:
for this reason, since because of +noun phrase
as a result, because due to +noun phrase
therefore, consequently so
Example:
Headaches can have several causes. Many people think that the major cause of headache is
nervous tension, but strong evidence suggests diet and environment as possible factors. Some
people get headaches because they are dependent on caffeine. Other people may be allergic to salt,
or they may have low blood sugar. Still other people are allergic to household chemicals including
polishes, waxes, bug killers and paint. If they can manage to avoid these substances, their
headaches tend to go away. When a person has recurring headaches, it is important to look for the
underlying cause, especially if the result of that search is freedom from pain.
5. Comparison/Comparing
In comparison, the writer places two subjects side by side and examines their similarities in order
to clarify the qualities of each (inform) or to make a point. If you write about the similarities
between two things (subtopics),the paragraph will be a comparison paragraph.
Here are common transitional markers/devices for developing comparison paragraph.
Like alike resembles similarities as…..
Just like likewise also same….,too.
Just as equallysimilarly similar both
Sample Comparison Paragraph
My house and my car are similar in many ways. First of all, both places are untidy. In my house,
you can see clothes strewn on chairs, papers littering all surfaces, and dishes in the sink. Similarly,

43
in my car, the back seat and floor are covered with sports clothes and shoes, books, empty soft-
drink cans, and gum wrappers. Second of all, I like to spend a lot of time in my house and in my
car. After work, I usually go home, eat dinner, and flop down on to the sofa to watch videos or
read a book. Likewise, on weekends, I usually take long out-of-town trips in my car; sometimes I
even sleep in it to save money on hotels. Finally, I do some identical activities in my house and in
my car. In my house, I get dressed, listen to loud music, and eat. In the same way, I change in to
my sports clothes in the car, listen to loud music on my car stereo, and eat snacks on my way
home after work or the gym. Although I treat my home and my car alike, I should probably clean
both of them up, so that people won't be afraid to visit or drive with me!
6. Contrast
In contrast, the writer places two subjects side by side and examines their differences in order to
clarify the qualities of each (inform) or to make a point. If you want to write about the differences
between two things (subtopics), your paragraph will be a contrast paragraph.
Here are some common transitions showing contrast.
However on the other hand different
in contrast as opposed to differently
instead unlike differs
Here are some more contrast conjunctions that you can use:
Short conjunctions subordinating conjunctions
in contrast, even though + ( sentence
by contrast although + (sentence)
but whereas + (sentence)
yet unlike + (sentence)
nevertheless while + (sentence)
7. Narration
The events in a narrative paragraph should usually be arranged in chronological order- the order in
which they happened. Sometimes you may want to rearrange events to emphasize a point. If you
do, make sure the sequence of events is clear enough for the reader to follow. A clear well-written
narrative should provide sufficient detail to allow your readers to understand fully the situation
you are writing about. Try to answer for your reader most of the following questions:
1. When did it happen? 4. What events occurred?
2. Who was involved? 5. Why did they happen?
3. Where did it happen? 6. How did they happen?

44
Example
There was a robber who roamed the countryside. He pillaged and killed passers- by. The king,
have heard this, sent out his soldiers. They caught him and brought him in chains to the king who
sentenced him to death. As they took him to the place were to be beheaded, the old father of this
robber was following him in tears. When the robber caught sight of his father, he asked to say a
few words to him before his death. Once he got close to his father, he tried to hit him, but he
failed to do so because his hands were tied together. So, he began to inflict upon him a terrible
bite with his teeth. All the people around him shouted: “Really this bandit deserve death since he
even wanted to kill his father.” But, he told them: “it is not I who deserves death but my father.”
When in my childhood I began stealing corn and grain, he praised me instead of punishing me and
accustomed me to robbery. For this reason, I became a bandit and thus reached this hour of my
death. Had my father punished me at the appropriate time, I would not have come to this end.
Having said this, he was beheaded, but all those who had children understood the seriousness of
the matter.
8. Description
Description helps the reader visualize the topic. Descriptive writing creates impression.
Descriptive paragraph creates an impression, and enables your reader to visualize your topic
sentence. To write effective descriptions, you have to:
 Establish a dominant impression, and express this impression in your topic sentence;
 Select relevant and sufficient details to support your dominant impression;
 Use exact, colorful and vivid words that appeal to the senses;
 Organize your details logically;
 Use transitional words and phrases to link your details.
All the details in a descriptive paragraph must be relevant to and helpful in creating your dominant
impression.
9. Process
A process paragraph or essay describes how something is done or how something works. We call
it ―how -to‖ paragraph‖. If you are to explain the series of actions, stages, or procedures, then
you should use process method.
Example on process paragraph
Making a good cup of tea is exquisitely simple. First, the teapot is heated by filling it with water
that has just come to a boil. This water is then discarded, and one teaspoon of loose tea per cup is

45
placed in the teapot (the exact amount may vary according to taste). Fresh water that has just come
to boil is poured into the pot. A good calculation is six ounces of water for each cup of tea. The tea
must now steep for three to five minutes; then it is poured through a strainer into a cup or mug. A
pound of loose tea will yield about two hundred cups of brewed tea. Using a tea bag eliminates the
strainer, but it is still best to make the tea in teapot so that the water stays sufficiently hot. The
typical restaurant service-a cup of hot water with the tea bag on the side –will not produce the best
cup of tea because the water is never hot enough when it is reaches the table and because the tea
should not be dunked in the water; the water should be poured over the tea. Although tea in a pot
often becomes too strong, that problem can be dealt with very easily by adding more boiling
water.
Methods of Paragraph Organization
Thus, this section deals with the following methods of paragraph organization that help you
achieve coherence in your paragraphs.
 Spatial Order:
 Chronological Order (Time Order)
 Order of Importance (Emphatic Order)
6. Advanced Writing Skills
WRITING MODES

46
1. Narrative Writing: Narrative writing tells a story. Narrative writing's main purpose is to tell a
story. The author will create different characters and tell you what happens to them (sometimes the
author writes from the point of view of one of the characters—this is known as first person
narration). Novels, short stories, novellas, poetry, and biographies can all fall in the narrative
writing style. Simply, narrative writing answers the question: ―What happened then?‖
2. Descriptive Writing: Descriptive writing paints a vivid picture of a person, place, or thing. The
goal of descriptive writing is to make the reader feel as if they are part of the scene being
described. Descriptive writing uses sensory details, metaphors, and other literary devices to bring
the subject to life.
Adjectives and verbs
The grey ash cloud flew (rose) (floated) (escaped) (drifted) (faded) up to the sky.
The grey ash cloud rose up to the sky/The grey ash cloud faded up to the sky.
The thick, white, creeping smoke was visible in the dark, (starry) bitter, ominous sky.
The whole neighborhood went to search for the missing boy.
The viscous, savage crowd went out to search for the lost/ innocent/ orphaned boy.
Simile
The tunnel was dark, gloomy and silent like an abandoned, haunted mill.
The tunnel was dark, gloomy and silent like the empty dead space in a black hole.
Senses
The thick smoke carried a dense, choking, burnt smell through the air.
The man heard the birds chirping and tweeting as loud as possible like a vast orchestra/ like a
stadium of enthusiastic football fans competing with each other.
The crackling smoke filled my nose with a powerful burning aroma.
Personification
The miserable brown mud stuck to us as if it were trying to pull us down into it‘s murky
kingdom.
The shady smoke hypnotized the people pulling (drawing) (them towards it) in all of their
minds.
3. Expository Writing: Expository writing is a style of composition that exposes or explains a
topic using facts. Expository writing often includes a thesis statement, supportive information,
explanatory paragraphs and a conclusion that summarizes the information. It focuses on presenting
factual information that's free of any biases or opinions.
4. Argumentative Writing: An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that uses factual
evidence and logical support to convince the reader of a certain way of thinking.

47
PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation marks are used as a signal to the reader. When we speak, we can pause, stop, or
change our tone of voice. When we write, we need to indicate our reader how we want them to
read our writing. If we did not have punctuation, our writing would be one long stream of thought
with no coherence. Imagine reading your text book if it were all one very long sentence. How
much sense would it make to you? Now, think about a conversation you have had with your best
friend. Think about how you animate your voice, the pauses you make for emphasis, and the
sound of a question. All those different aspects of your speech can be shown on a paper using
punctuation. The following are some rules to help you use punctuation to your advantage using the
marks below:
1. Period (.)
a. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
Example: I know that you would never break my trust intentionally.
b. If the last word in the sentence ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
Examples: I know that M.D. She is my sister-in-law.
Please shop, cook, etc. I will do the laundry.
c. Use a period after an indirect question.
Example: He asked where his suitcase was.
d. A period may be placed after initial letters or after a shortened form of a word to indicate an
abbreviation:
B.A. U.K. a.m. A.D. Mon. Dec. Prof. Gen. (General or Genesis)
2. Comma (,)
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven
coordinating conjunctions: FANBOYS (for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so)
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
Yesterday was her brother‘s birthday, so she took him out to dinner.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main
clause.
a. Comma starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include
after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
When the snow stops falling, we‘ll shovel the driveway.

48
However, don‘t put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause
follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
INCORRECT: The cat scratched the door, while I was eating.
CORRECT: She was still quite upset, although she had won Oscar. (This comma use is
correct because it is an example of extreme contrast.)
b. Comma introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and
infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional
phrases (over four words)
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you‘d better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the café.
c. Comma introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you might not be satisfied with the results.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are
not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to
meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted
yourself.
4. Nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
Examples
The constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branch of government.

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