2. Methods of Data Collection
Essentially two types:
1. Primary data – are those which are collected for the first
time and are original in character
2. Secondary data – are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have through some
statistical analysis
3. Collection of Primary Data
Primary data may be collected thru:
• Experiments
• Surveys (sample surveys or census surveys)
• Observation
• Personal Interviews
4. Collection of Primary Data…
Of the above, the important ones are:
1. Observation Method
2. Interview Method
3. Thru Questionnaires/Schedules
5. I. Observation Method
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is
systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks
and controls on validity and reliability
• Under observation – the information is sought by way of
investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the
respondent
6. Observation Method…
Main advantages are:
Subjective bias is eliminated
The information relates to what is currently happening
This method is independent of respondent’s willingness to
respond
7. Observation Method…
Main Limitations are:
It is expensive
The information provided by this method is very limited
Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task
8. Types of Observation
Essentially two types:
1. Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
2. Participant vs. Non-participant Observation
9. Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
Structured Observation – when the observation is characterized
by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of
recording the observed information, standardized conditions
of observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation
Unstructured Observation – when it takes place without the
above characteristics
11. II. Interview Method
The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation
of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal
responses
12. Personal Interview
PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-
to-face contact with the person
Collecting information thru PI is structured – the use of a set of
predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques
of recording
13. Personal Interview…
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid
procedure, asking questions in a form and order prescribed
In unstructured interviews – there is a flexibility of approach to
questioning
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined
questions and standardized techniques of recording information
14. Other Interview Techniques
Focused Interview – to focus attention on the given experience
of the respondent and its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and
sequence of questions to elicit/explore reasons and motives.
The main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of
issues
15. Other Interview Techniques…
Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad underlying feelings or
motivations or with the course of an individual’s life experience.
Eliciting information is left to the interviewer’s discretion
Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's function is simply to
encourage the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare
minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a
catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondent’s
feelings and beliefs
16. Advantages
1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained
2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer
3. Greater flexibility – an opportunity to restructure questions
4. Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal
answers
5. Personal information can be obtained
6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest
responses
17. Disadvantages
1. Expensive method
2. Interviewer bias
3. Respondent bias
4. Time consuming
5. Under the interview method the organization required for
selecting, training, and supervising the field staff is complex
with formidable problems
6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very
difficult
18. Data Collection Thru Questionnaires
Popular in major studies
Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the
Questionnaire
A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a
definite order on a form
The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to
read and understand the questions and write down the reply in
the space provided
19. Merits of Questionnaire Method
1. Low cost – even when the universe is large and is
widespread
2. Free from interviewer bias
3. Respondents have adequate time to think thru their
answers
4. Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be
reached conveniently
5. Large samples can be used
20. Demerits
1. Low rate of return
2. Respondents need to be educated and cooperative
3. Inbuilt inflexibility
4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items
5. This method is slow
21. Features of a Questionnaire
Questionnaire is the heart of a survey – needs to be carefully
constructed
Need to understand the features of the Questionnaire – its
general form, question sequence and question formulation
and the wording of the questions
22. 1. General Form
• May be either structured or unstructured
• Structured Questionnaires – are those in which there are definite,
concrete, predetermined questions
• The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in
the same order to all respondents
• The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open
(inviting free responses
23. General Form…
• Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative
questions in which responses are limited to the stated
alternatives
• Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all
the questions and answers are specified and comments in
the respondents’ own words are held to the minimum
• Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above
characteristics are absent, it is known as a unstructured
Questionnaire
• The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the
type of information to be obtained
24. 2. Question Sequence
• Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses
• Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation of one question to
the next
• To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondent
– difficult questions, personal questions etc should preferably
come at the appropriate time rather than at the begining
25. 3. Question Formulation & Wording
• Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous
• Questions should be impartial and unbiased
• Should be easily understood
• Should be simple (one idea at a time)
• Should be concrete
• Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended
26. Data Collection Thru Schedules
Very similar to the Questionnaire method
The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the
enumerator who is specially appointed for the purpose
Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions
from the Performa in the order listed, and records the
responses in the space provided
Enumerators must be trained in administering the schedule
27. Other Methods of Data Collection
1. Warranty Cards
2. Distributor or Store Audits
3. Pantry Audits
4. Consumer Panels
5. Mechanical Devices
6. Depth Interviews
7. Content Analysis
8. Projective Tests
28. Collection of Secondary Data
Published data are available in:
1. Publications of State/Central govt.s
2. Publications of International Bodies
3. Technical and Trade Journals
4. Books, Magazines and Newspapers
5. Reports/Publications of various organizations (banks, stock
exchanges, business houses, etc)
6. Reports – by scholars, Universities, etc
7. Public records, Historical Documents, etc
29. Secondary Data must possess the following
characteristics:
Reliability of data – may be tested by checking:
Who collected the data?
What were the sources of the data?
Was the data collected properly?
Suitability of data – data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be
necessarily suitable in another enquiry
Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various terms and
units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature of the original
enquiry must be studied
Adequacy of data – the data will be considered inadequate, if they are
related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of
the present enquiry
