This document discusses the conflict in Darfur, Western Sudan between semi-nomadic herders and agriculturalists beginning in 1991. It notes that the Zaghawa people were victims of Arab apartheid and that the Janjaweed militia attacked Golo in 2003. It provides casualty estimates for the conflict ranging from 70,000 to 461,000 deaths, with 2.85 million people displaced. It also mentions the 2011 Darfur Peace Agreement that included provisions for a Darfuri vice president and more administrative rights.

1. Darfur: Western Sudan, 40% of
Sudanese population
Land disputes between semi-
nomadic livestock herders &
those who practiced agriculture
1991, Zaghawa people of Sudan
victims of Arab apartheid
DLF attacked Golo in 2003; Entry
of the dreaded Janjaweed

3. The Other View
• Sudan for long has remained under the NIF regime.
• Legacy of exploitation- in the south’s oil rich
region, to secure operations of international oil
companies
• In Darfur, the NIF pursued a deliberate policy of
human destruction, targeting ethnically African
populations that had rebelled against, or were
victims of, decades of political and economic
marginalization.
• Complicity of oil companies from
Canada, Sweden, China, Malaysia, India, Austria
• Geopolitical angle

4. • Casualties:
– UN figure: 70000 dead (disputed)
– Latest estimates put the figure close to 461000
– 2.85 million displaced
– Many continue to die of disease and hunger
• Darfur Peace Agreement (2011) was proposed
by the Joint Mediators at the Doha Peace
Forum.
• The proposed document included provisions
for a Darfuri Vice-President and more
administrative rights.

5. • Concept of nation, nation state, citizenship,
community
• Genocide: Why they begin, how the progress,
why they end
• What drives people to such violence?

6. Nation
• refers only to a socio-cultural entity, a union of people sharing who can
identify culturally and linguistically. This concept does not necessarily
consider formal political unions.
State
• to a legal/political entity that is comprised of the following: a) a
permanent population; b) a defined territory; c) a government ; and d)
the capacity to enter into relations with other states
Nation state
• A political unit consisting of an autonomous state inhabited
predominantly by a people sharing a common culture, history, and
language.

7. The crime of genocide is defined in international
law in the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of Genocide
“Genocide means any of the following acts
committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in
part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious
group, as such:
• Killing members of the group
• Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the
group;
• Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated
to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
• Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
• Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.”

8. The intentional physical destruction, in whole or
in part, of a group as defined by the perpetrator
and carried out by the state or other recognized
authority.
UN Genocide Convention- restricts victim
groups to the categories of `national, ethnical ,
racial or religious’ and leaves out political, sexual
and other groups

9. Tells us who we are
Provides with a promise to get through a normal day without a
violent confrontation with another person, family, clan or tribe.
Because the state holds a monopoly on the legitimate use of
violent force
It provides the benefit of reigning in human propensities for
aggression

10. The idea of the "nation" becomes the
individual's primary identity point of
reference – Mark Levene
• Subordinate All Other Groups
• Each individual is a subject of the state and the state is
under no obligation to recognize an individual's
membership in any other group when it comes to that
individual's rights and obligations to the state.
• In the political realm, the state's primacy is absolute. Any
individual or group that would challenge this absolute
authority exposes itself to the state's monopoly of violent
force.

11. Premium on Social Coherence
• States push individuals/groups to assimilate
to ideals of a nation—the notion of a
collective and unified community. The idea
of the nation "standardizes" individuals.
• Groups that refuse to assimilate national
values may be encapsulated or, if this is not
possible, they may be targeted for
persecution

12. Drive for Development and Totalizing
• The responsibility of state is to not merely to provide a
secure basis for living, it will constantly seek
to improve health and productivity of society
• State seek to mobilize all aspects of life toward these
goals-this push towards progress can become totalizing
• Groups or individuals that dissent or resist the state's goals
and efforts must reckon with the state's monopoly of
violent force.
Bottom Line :
• Genocide is not some aberration external to the modern
age of nation-states.
• Quite the contrary, the very processes that have created
the conditions for the modern nation-state also created the
conditions of genocide.

13. Citizenship (T H Marshall)
• Civil element :
– rights necessary for individual freedom such as liberty of
the person, freedom of speech, thought and faith, the
right to own property and to conclude valid contracts, as
well as the right to justice.
• Political element
– right to participate in political power as a member of the
political body or as an elector of the members of such a
body.
• Social element
– right to economic welfare and security, the right to fully
share social heritage, and the right to live life according to
the standard in the society

14. Janus faced Citizenship
Relationship between the individual and state.
As Melanie Philips has put it “There appears to be a great
yearning for it, even though no one actually knows what it is”
Thus citizenship was analysed by many researchers to act as an
integrating force in the society.
Defending one’s own community and country is often perceived
as an ultimate citizen’s duty, in fact, to die as well as to kill for the
sake of the homeland or the nation (Yuval-Davis )
Feminist Ruth Lister says, “ There is a janus faced nature of
citizenship for it “operates simultaneously as a mechanism of
both inclusion and exclusion and also as a language of both
discipline and resistance

15. to naturalize poor and black agony,
distress and death”
• Hurricane Katrina devastation in New Orleans,
Louisiana on August 28, 2005

16. Global Citizenship (Nira Davis Yuval)
Davis pointed out that in this era of globalisation, the
relationship between citizens and states and civil
societies keeps on changing.
A new perspective of “global citizenship”
She stated that citizenship can be comprehended as
“multi-tier construct” to understand people’s
membership in a variety of collectivities at the local,
ethnic, national and transnational levels

17. Community
Anderson falls into the “historicist”“modernist” school of nationalism
along with Ernest Geller and Eric Hobsbawm in that he posits that
nations and nationalism are products of modernity and have been
created as means to political and economic ends. Most influential
contemporary literature on Nationalism
• Anderson’s definition of the nation as an “imagined community”
• As Anderson puts it, a nation "is imagined because the members of
even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-
members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each
lives the image of their communion“
• Members hold in their minds a mental image of their affinity
Ex: the nationhood felt with other members of your nation when your
"imagined community" participates in a larger event such as
the Olympic Games

18. An Anthropological Perspective
• Humans sacrifice their own self
interest for unrelated individuals
even for abstract ideals
• Such groups naturally feel solidarity
and feel some degree of
exclusiveness
• Most universal way of constructing-
’brethren & sistren’
• Benedict points this as ‘Double
edged sword’
-Good subjects but also good
soldiers.
-Indulgence in group hates
-Human problem stem from excess
solidarity not excess individualism
Also sacrifice lives willingly for
their social groups(not only loyal
soldiers but also punks in street)
Social solidarity constructed via
religion/festivals/shared cultural
knowledge
-Called ‘Culture’
-Define ‘Ethnic Groups’
Nations draw on every
mechanism to create the
‘imagined communities’

19. Nation Building
• Homogenization of society
• State sponsored genocide:
Turkish Committee of
Union & Progress decided
to eliminate Armenians
• Pre emptive strike to
defang real or imagined
threats to State authority:
Cambodia under Khmer
Rouge
• Centrality of political
leaders: Saddam Hussein’s
Baathist credo; Mao
Zedong; Agha Khan

20. Acute ethnic conflict or
intensive prejudice against
a group
• Holocaust (anti Semitic),
Rwanda (Hutu-Tutsi)
• Hatred doesn’t lead to
systematic slaughter
without political
mobilization: Turkish acts

21. Temporal classification
• Focused: a single, time bounded
assault
• American bombing at Hiroshima,
Nagasaki
• Iterative, a series of assaults
• Initiate – halt - relaunch
• Rwanda : 1963 – 1964 - 1994
• Systemic, continual and drawn out
• Integral part of a regime
• Germany during Nazi period

22. Depends on:
• Perpetrator’s character, their conception of the
victims, available technological means, perceived time
pressure
Rwanda : poor, underdeveloped
• Locked people in houses, starved to death
• Killed with clubs, machetes
• Less guns, bullets

23. Cambodia – Khmer Rouge
• Planned starvation
Germany – modern technology
• Gas chambers
• Inefficient
• not economically rational –
required transportation
• Liked to think they were
disinfecting the world
• assembly line killing

24. International Political Environment’s Crucial Context:
4 dimensions:
• Legal: Is mass murder legally proscribed
• Rhetorical: Is mass murder publicly discussed and loudly condemned by
media, govts, people
• Action: Are outside actors/states/organizations permissive toward mass
murdering or do they intervene to stop
• Hortatory: Do outsider actors overtly or covertly actually support leaders
who commit mass murders
How they end:
• The perpetrators reached their goal: Turks annihilation of Armenians
• There was internal change owing to the leader’s death-
• The state lost war that was waged against them- Pakistan ceased killing
Bengalis

26. Bangladesh
Liberation War
• Operation Searchlight
1. 1970 Pakistan parliamentary elections
2. Awami league and Pakistan Peoples’ Party tiff
3. Carried out by Pakistan army (then west
Pakistan) to curb the bengali nationalist
movement
4. Plan was to take control of major cities in East
Pakistan within one month through murder, rape
and torture by Pakistani militia and autorities.
5. indiscriminate killings of students of Dhaka
University
6. women were raped, tortured and killed during
the war

27. It is estimated that between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 civilians were killed in
Bangladesh, and up to four hundred thousand women raped by the Pakistani
armed forces especially Bengali Hindus.
As a result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people fled the country
at the time to seek refuge in neighbouring India

28. Blood Telegram:
(March 27, 1971), Blood wrote about American
observations at Dhaka under the subject heading
"Selective genocide”
1. Here in Decca we are mute and horrified witnesses to a reign of terror by the
Pak[istani] Military. Evidence continues to mount that the MLA authorities have
list of AWAMI League supporters whom they are systematically eliminating by
seeking them out in their homes and shooting them down 2. Among those
marked for extinction in addition to the A.L. hierarchy are student leaders and
university faculty. In this second category we have reports that Fazlur Rahman
head of the philosophy department and a Hindu, M. Abedin, head of the
department of history, have been killed. Razzak of the political science
department is rumored dead. Also on the list are the bulk of MNA's elect and
number of MPA's. 3. Moreover, with the support of the Pak[istani] Military. non-
Bengali Muslims are systematically attacking poor people's quarters and
murdering Bengalis and Hindus. (U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Selective
genocide, March 27, 1971

29. • General Tikka Khan earned the nickname 'Butcher of
Bengal' due to the widespread atrocities he
committed.
• His orders to his troops were: 'I want the land not the
people...' Major General Farman had written in his
table diary, "Green land of East Pakistan will be
painted red". It was painted red by Bengali blood.
• Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 27 March 1971
expressed full support of her government for the
independence struggle of the people of East Pakistan.
• The Indian government repeatedly appealed to the
international community

30. • The Indian leadership under Prime Minister
Gandhi quickly decided that it was more
effective to end the genocide by taking
armed action against Pakistan than to simply
give refuge to those who made it across to
refugee camps.
• Exiled East Pakistan army officers and
members of the Indian Intelligence
immediately started using these camps for
recruitment and training of Mukti Bahini
guerrillas.

31. Psychosocial Model:
• Primary Prevention:
• Addressing historic animosities and patterns of disparity
• Promoting positive relation between groups (more contact, celebrating differences,
personalization, de-stereotyping
• Education
• Secondary Prevention:
• International aid to communities in crises (social, political, economic, environmental)
• Intervention: When everything fails, armed intervention may be necessitated (Carnegie
Commission on the Prevention of Deadly Violence, 1997)
• Post Genocide Intervention:
• Aid to victims
• Bring perpetrators to justice- This has not been attempted consistently.
• Truth Commission
Efforts to form global community
based on co operation , non violent conflict resolution,
human rights and peace.
Reference- Journal of Genocide Research (2005),7,(1)- Linda
Woolf & Michael Hulsizer