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1. 2/26/12 Alzforum - Print News
Peptide Sparks Synaptic Plasticity, Improves Memory in Rodents
24 February 2012. A small peptide called FGL boosts learning and memory when administered to
rodents, and is poised to begin clinical trials in Alzheimer’s disease patients this year. Intriguingly,
FGL sharpens memory in wild-type rats as well as in several disease models. While prior studies
suggested that the heightened learning resulted from improved synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus
(see Dallérac et al., 2011), the mechanism was unclear. Now, in the February 21 PLoS Biology,
researchers led by José Esteban at the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain, detail the signaling
pathway behind this effect. They report that FGL treatment stimulates activity-dependent delivery of
glutamate receptors to synapses, leading to a long-term enhancement of synaptic transmission.
Scientists contacted by Alzforum expressed enthusiasm for the findings. “The effect on synaptic
transmission is impressive, and represents the only peptide that I know of that is capable of enhancing
transmission and plasticity,” wrote Roberto Malinow at the University of California, San Diego.
Elisabeth Bock and colleagues at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, designed the 15-amino-acid
peptide in 2004, basing it on a portion of neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). NCAM is known to
play a role in synaptic plasticity (see, e.g., Dityatev et al., 2000). Bock and colleagues showed that the
FG loop (FGL) from the second fibronectin type III module of NCAM binds and activates fibroblast
growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) (see Kiselyov et al., 2003). The FGL peptide mimics this activity
and improves cell survival in primary neuronal cultures exposed to toxins, the authors reported (see
Neiiendam et al., 2004). Moreover, FGL injected subcutaneously into wild-type rats crosses the blood-
brain barrier and enhances several forms of memory, including fear conditioning, social and motor
learning, and spatial memory tested in the Morris water maze (see Cambon et al., 2004; Secher et al.,
2006). Enhanced spatial memory persists for as long as two weeks after peptide administration.
Furthermore, treated rats behave normally in an open field test, suggesting the peptide does not
increase anxiety. Behavioral and social problems often accompany changes in learning, said Philip
Washbourne from the University of Oregon, Eugene.
Esteban and colleagues wanted to dissect the mechanisms behind FGL’s effects. Joint first authors
Shira Knafo and César Venero treated hippocampal slice cultures with 10 µg/ml FGL for 24 hours,
then removed FGL for a day before electrophysiological testing. Peptide treatment heightened AMPA
receptor-mediated transmission at excitatory CA1 synapses, which the authors showed was due to
insertion of additional AMPA receptors. Inhibiting protein kinase C (PKC), a downstream effector of
the FGF1 receptor, eliminated the AMPA receptor influx. To demonstrate that the same mechanism
occurs in vivo, the authors administered both FGL and the PKC inhibitor into rat brains through a
cannula, and found that the inhibitor abolished FGL-mediated memory enhancement.
Importantly, enhanced synaptic transmission does not occur spontaneously after FGL treatment.
Instead, the peptide seems to facilitate long-term potentiation (LTP) in response to synaptic activity. In
FGL-treated hippocampal slices, electrical stimulation induced LTP nearly twice as strongly as in
untreated slices, and inhibiting PKC prevented this effect. Furthermore, when the authors blocked
NMDA receptors, which are crucial for LTP, FGL treatment no longer pumped up AMPA receptor
delivery. Esteban notes that this activity dependence is critical for a cognitive enhancer. If the peptide
indiscriminately increased synaptic transmission, it might overexcite neurons and lead to epilepsy, he
said. But by heightening synaptic plasticity only in response to activity, the peptide helps the animal
encode information more easily, leading to better memory.
“I find it intriguing that memory processes can be improved over normal levels,” Esteban told
Alzforum. This implies that the human memory system is not running at the top of its possible
performance, he said. Esteban pointed out that FGL recruits physiological memory mechanisms, which
suggests that the peptide may have few side effects. It also may not need to be given chronically.
Esteban and colleagues found that PKC, as well as other proteins involved in LTP, stays activated for
at least 24 hours after FGL removal. The peptide therefore provides a long-lasting augmentation of
synaptic plasticity, in agreement with in-vivo results. “We still don’t know what allows the system to
stay in this sensitized state,” Esteban noted.
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In addition to looking at electrophysiology, the authors examined the structure of dendritic spines in
the CA1 region. However, they found no evidence that FGL increased spine density or changed spine
shape. Previous studies have also reported no change in spine density after FGL treatment, although
earlier work did show evidence of alterations in fine structure (see Popov et al., 2008).
“The synaptic plasticity mediated by the FGL agonist, therefore, would appear to relate to retuning the
strength of existing cell synapses,” rather than to creating new synapses, Ciaran Regan at University
College Dublin, Ireland, wrote to Alzforum. This implies the peptide may be most effective for
treating conditions where synaptic transmission may be weakened or perturbed, for example, in
depression, rather than disorders such as AD, where synapses are lost, Regan suggested (see full
comment below).
Other commentators expressed enthusiasm about the therapeutic potential of the peptide, while noting
some cautions. Washbourne pointed out that it will be important to do more extensive behavioral tests,
in particular, looking for effects of FGL on social behavior, before taking the peptide to clinical trials.
Paul Lombroso at Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, suggested the peptide might have broad
applicability for numerous types of cognitive dysfunction, telling Alzforum, “I think this is an
excellent paper, and very exciting in terms of our attempts to find reagents that may improve cognitive
deficits.”
So far, FGL has been shown to enhance memory or protect neurons in animal models of chronic stress
(see Borcel et al., 2008 and Bisaz et al., 2011), depression (see Aonurm-Helm et al., 2008), ischemia
(see Skibo et al., 2005), and traumatic brain injury (see Pedersen et al., 2008). Other studies indicate
that the peptide reduces neuroinflammation (see Downer et al., 2009 and Ojo et al., 2011). FGL has
also been found to prevent age-related structural changes in synapses (see Ojo et al., 2011).
Does the peptide hold potential for treating Alzheimer’s disease? One published study from Bock’s
group suggests it does. Rats injected with Aβ oligomers develop signs of AD-like neuropathology and
failing memory, but when also given FGL, either subcutaneously or intranasally, these deficits do not
develop. In addition, Aβ-injected rats having more advanced pathology improved after FGL treatment,
showing fewer amyloid plaques and better memory than untreated controls (see Klementiev et al.,
2007). Experiments in rats, dogs, and monkeys found no toxic effects from the peptide, and an eight-
day human study on 24 healthy male volunteers revealed no ill effects from a single dose of FGL
given intranasally (see Anand et al., 2007). Based on these data, Enkam Pharmaceuticals, a
biotechnology company based in Copenhagen, Denmark, plans to begin clinical trials of a modified
form of FGL in 2012 (see company press release). In cooperation with a consortium of companies,
universities, and AD patient groups, Enkam will lead three Phase 1 safety studies, one Phase 2a study
in AD patients, and also a pilot study in stroke patients. The consortium has been awarded a €6 million
grant from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme to conduct these studies (see also
ARF related news story).—Madolyn Bowman Rogers.
Reference:
Knafo S, Venero C, Sánchez-Puelles C, Pereda-Peréz I, Franco A, Sandi C, Suárez LM, Solís JM,
Alonso-Nanclares L, Martín ED, Merino-Serrais P, Borcel E, Li S, Chen Y, Gonzalez-Soriano J,
Berezin V, Bock E, DeFelipe J, Esteban JA. Facilitation of AMPA receptor synaptic delivery as a
molecular mechanism for cognitive enhancement. PLoS Biol. 2012 Feb;10(2):e1001262.
Comments on News and Primary Papers
Comment by: Ciaran Regan
Submitted 24 February 2012 | Permalink Posted 24 February 2012
These studies explore the cognition-enhancing actions of a peptide agonist of the neural cell adhesion
molecule (NCAM), the FG loop (FGL) peptide, synthesized from the second fibronectin type III
module of NCAM. The identification of FGL as a cognition-enhancing agent is well established in the
literature, and this new and most comprehensive dataset now provides further information on the
molecular mechanisms by which this peptide may mediate its action. The bottom line outcome of these
studies is that FGL enhances cognition in rodents and long-term potentiation (LTP), a cellular model
of memory and learning, in hippocampal slices. This facilitation is demonstrated to be mediated by
FGL enhancing the delivery of AMPA-type glutamate receptor into excitatory synapses following
activation of NMDA-type glutamate receptors. Importantly, these effects are reported to be specifically
mediated by PKC activation.
This new dataset opens up pathways (literally) to further experiments such as the effect of the FGL
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3. 2/26/12 Alzforum - Print News
This new dataset opens up pathways (literally) to further experiments such as the effect of the FGL
peptide on the polysialylation status of NCAM, which also regulates plasticity and learning through
modulation of NMDA receptor signaling using the GluN2B-Ras-GRF1-p38 MAPK pathway
(Kochlamazashvili et al., 2010). Understanding crosstalk, if any, between these two pathways may be
crucial to revealing core neuroplastic deficits in Alzheimer’s disease, in which postmortem studies
have shown NCAM polysialylation to be significantly increased in the hippocampal formation
(Mikkonen et al., 1999).
Secondly, it is of particular interest that, despite a most rigorous morphological analysis, the FGL
peptide fails to have any impact on synapse density in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. This
finding is consistent with previous studies on the effect of FGL on plasticity in the dentate and CA3
regions of the hippocampus (Popov et al., 2008; Ojo et al., 2011)—as an aside, the dentate study
found an increase in the frequency of coated pits, which would be consistent with the AMPA receptor
trafficking data reported in this PLoS Biology paper. The synaptic plasticity mediated by the FGL
agonist, therefore, would appear to relate to retuning the strength of existing cell synapses in which the
learning and memory networks are distinguished by the composition of the cells that are coactivated.
This contrasts with the synapse assembly mechanism in which the creation and pruning of synapses
elaborates a network of specific groups of novel synapses with a connectivity scheme that has been
optimized for each response (Ziv and Ahissar, 2009).
As a consequence, the nature of the synaptic plasticity wrought by novel drug strategies, such as that of
the FGL peptide, may have significant implications for their future clinical development. Drugs that
augment synapse elaboration mechanisms, for example, may have greater impact on neurodegenerative
conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, in which neuron loss and synapse loss provide the
neuropathological correlative for dementia (DeKosky and Scheff, 1990). The FGL peptide agonist,
which is known to be well tolerated in humans (Anand et al., 2007), primarily appears to retune the
strength of existing cell synapses and, as such, may have more relevant neurotherapeutic potential in
conditions other than Alzheimer’s disease. A role for FGL in the treatment of depression has been
previously suggested by the authors (Aonurm-Helm et al., 2008).
References:
Anand R, Seiberling M, Kamtchoua T, Pokorny R (2007) Tolerability, safety and pharmacokinetics of
the FGLL peptide, a novel mimetic of neural cell adhesion molecule, following intranasal
administration in healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacokinet 46, 351-358. Abstract
Aonurm-Helm A, Jurgenson M, Zharkovsky T, Sonn K, Berezin V, Bock E, Zharkovsky A (2008)
Depression-like behaviour in neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM)-deficient mice and its reversal by
an NCAM-derived peptide, FGL. Eur J Neurosci 28, 1618-1628. Abstract
DeKosky ST, Scheff SW (1990) Synapse loss in frontal cortex biopsies in Alzheimer’s disease:
correlation with cognitive severity. Ann Neurol. 27, 457-464. Abstract
Kochlamazashvili G, Senkov O, Grebenyuk S, Robinson C, Xiao M-F, Stummeyer K, Gerardy-
Schahn R, Engel AK, Feig L, Semyanov A, Suppiramaniam V, Schachner M, Dityatev A (2010)
Neural cell adhesion molecule-associated polysialic acid regulates synaptic plasticity and learning by
restraining the signaling through gluN2B-containing NMDA receptors. J. Neurosci. 30, 4171-4183.
Abstract
Mikkonen M, Soininen H, Tapiola T, Alafuzoff I, Miettinen R (1999) Hippocampal plasticity in
Alzheimer’s disease: changes in highly polysialylated NCAM immunoreactivity in the hippocampal
formation. Eur J Neurosci 11:1754-1764. Abstract
Ojo B, Rezaie P, Gabbott PL, Davies H, Colyer F, Cowley TR, Lynch M, Stewart MG (2011) Age-
related changes in the hippocampus (loss of synaptophysin and glial-synaptic interaction) are modified
by systemic treatment with an NCAM-derived peptide, FGL. Brain Behav Immun. Abstract
Popov VI, Medvedev NI, Kraev IV, Gabbott PL, Davies HA, Lynch M, Cowley TR, Berezin V, Bock
E, Stewart MG (2008) A cell adhesion molecule mimetic, FGL peptide, induces alterations in synapse
and dendritic spine structure in the dentate gyrus of aged rats: a three-dimensional ultrastructural
study. Eur J Neurosci 27, 301-314. Abstract
Ziv NE, Ahissar E (2009) Neuroscience: New tricks and old spines. Nature 462, 859-861. Abstract
View all comments by Ciaran Regan
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