1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Student’s Guides:
Note 1 – Research Strategies
Reference Book : Business Research Methods by Alan Bryman & Emma Bell (2007) Oxford
University Press
Reading guide
The chief aim of this Note1 is to show that a variety of considerations enter
into the process of doing management and business research. The distinction
that is commonly drawn among writers on and practitioners of social research
between quantitative research and qualitative research is explored in relation
to these considerations. This chapter explores:
 the nature of the relationship between theory and research, in
particular whether theory guides research (known as a deductive
approach) or whether theory is an outcome of research (known as an
inductive approach)
 epistemological issues—that is, ones to do with what is regarded as
appropriate knowledge about the social world, one of the most crucial
aspects is the question of whether or not a natural science model of the
research process is suitable for the study of the social world;
 ontological issues—that is, ones to do with whether the social world is
regarded as something external to social actors or as something that
people are in the process of fashioning;
 the ways in which these issues relate to the widely used distinction in
the social sciences between two types of research strategy:
quantitative and qualitative research; there is also a preliminary
discussion, which will be followed up in Chapter 24, that suggests that,
while quantitative and qualitative research represent different
approaches to social research, we should be wary of driving a wedge
between them;
 the ways in which values and practical issues also impinge on the
social research process.
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2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.1 Research Strategies
Bryman & Bell, Business Research
Methods, 2nd edition, Chapter 1
Business research strategies
‘All social research is a coming together of the
ideal and the feasible’.
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Working from the quote the main point to make here is that research not a cut
& dried affair. This is especially true of undergraduate/masters dissertation
research as research possibilities are often driven by access and constrained
by the opportunities available to the lone researcher (see 1. in Problem
Spotting section at end).
Research strategy is a complex topic but in practice is mainly a matter of
making & justifying choices. Possibly the most crucial thing is to know is
where to find the info you need as even professional researchers often use a
‘cookbook’ approach.
Slide 1.2 The Field of Management Research
The Field of Management Research
Discipline base
Psychology Sociology Anthropology Economics
Organisational Sub Fields Operational
Behaviour Research
Human Resource Accounting
Management & Finance
Industrial
Relations Strategy
Marketing
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Note that sub-fields are eclectic in content and only separate in conceptual
terms, e.g. HRM itself could be considered as a sub-field of OB, IR & strategy.
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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.3 Research Classifications
Research Classifications
• Exploratory/descriptive
• Analytical/critical
• Predictive/confirmatory
• Action/applied
Authored by David McHugh
©1
This slide represents a conceptual classification or research typology
additional to the material in the text – its main purpose is to introduce
discussion of different types or approaches to research and as a link to point
students to the ‘Research Project Guide’ section of the site.
Possibly best to use simple examples of categories here:
Exploratory/descriptive – informal interview
Analytical/critical – survey/ethnography
Predictive/confirmatory – experiment
Action/applied – diagnostic survey
Slide 1.4 The Status of Management Research
The Status of Management Research
‘Both academic researchers and management
consultants are in professional services; they are
“intellectuals,” “knowledge workers”, or even
“gold-collar workers”; they belong to “knowledge-
based organizations,” a subset of the service
economy’.
Gummeson, E. 1991, p.5.
Authored by David McHugh
©1
See Key concept 1.1
The emphasis here is on the sensitivity of client’s agendas & politicised
interests e.g. the difficulty of researching topics such as absenteeism,
workplace deviancy etc and the pressure to produce solutions.
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4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Key point: Management and business research is subject to considerable
political debate concerning its relevance to practitioners and its
fundamental purpose.
Slide 1.5 Modes of Knowledge Production
Modes of Knowledge Production
• Mode 1 • Mode2
– traditional, university- – involves:
based • academics
• policy-makers
– academic audience • practitioners
– pure and applied – trans-disciplinarity
– built upon existing – related to context
knowledge • not easily replicated
– more linear process – less linear process
– more emphasis on
– limited emphasis on dissemination &
dissemination exploitation
Based on Gibbons et al. (1994)
Authored by David McHugh
©1
This is probably a good point to ask for some reflection from students using
the questions from p.6 in text:
 What is the aim or function of management research?
 Is it conducted primarily in order to find ways of improving organizational
performance?
 Or is it mainly about increasing our understanding of how organizations
work?
 Who are the audiences of management research?
 Is management research conducted primarily for managers and if not, for
whom else in organizations is it conducted?
 Or is it done in order to further the academic development of management
and business as a field or even as a discipline?
Additionally/alternatively you could explore points 1-4 on pp.6-7
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5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.6 Theory & Social Research
Theory & Social Research
• Two types of theory:
– Grand theories
• offer few indications to influence the collection of empirical
evidence
• do not necessarily link well with the real world
• are said to be of limited use in connection with social research
• do not typically guide management and business research
– Theories of the middle range
• operate in limited domains
• vary in purpose or application
• fall somewhere between grand theories and empirical findings
• represent attempts to understand and explain limited aspects of
social life?
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Refer to text p.7-8 & the discussion of Merton.
Grand theories can be presented as good at integrating findings of research
into theoretical frames, middle-range theories as giving more guidance as to
possible directions of research and generating research questions.
Slide 1.7 Examples of Grand Theory
Examples of Grand Theory
• Structural-functionalism
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Critical theory
• Poststructuralism
• Structuration theory (see Key concept 1.1)
Authored by David McHugh
©1
See Research in focus 1.2 – the point is that though grand theories can inform
research, results often tell us more about the explanatory power of the theory
itself or are used to support the veracity of the theory against competing
theories than they do to integrate knowledge about a social situation.
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6. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.8 Examples of Mid Range Theories
Examples of Mid Range Theories
• Strategic choice
• Trait theory
• Contingency theory
• Labour Process theory (see Research in focus 1.2)
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Here you can either:
1. Refer to Research in focus 1.3 and & give an example of labour
process theory research
2. Emphasise the discussion of contingency theory in the text
3. Or for a more OB related course use an example of trait theory in
different strands of research – personality, stress, career development
etc.
Slide 1.9 Theory and Literature
Theory and Literature
• Uses of literature:
– not just naive empiricism (see Key concept1.4)
– characteristic of ‘fact-finding exercises'
– descriptive & exploratory
– literature can act as a proxy for theory
– theory can be latent or implicit in the literature
• Theory driven by:
– neglected aspects of topics
– ideas not previously tested
– deficiency of existing approaches
– newly published ideas or findings
Authored by David McHugh
©1
You could spend some time explaining empiricism, referring to Key concept
1.4
Alternatively you could point out that in student research it is often theory that
drives how to proceed with research questions regardless of status of theory,
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7. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
i.e. uncritical usage treats all theory as of equal status (see 2. in Problem
Spotting section at end).
Slide 1.10 Deduction and Induction
Deduction and Induction
• Deduction
Deduction:
– Theory  observations/findings
• Induction
Induction:
– Observations/findings  theory
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Use this slide mainly as a link to introduce slides 1.11 & 1.12, but point out
that both deductive research & inductive research comprise elements of each
other and it is rare that student research uses a pure version of either (see 3.
in Problem Spotting section at end).
Key point: Theory can be depicted as something that precedes research
(as in quantitative research) or as something that emerges out
of it (as in qualitative research).
Slide 1.11 The Process of Deduction
The Process of Deduction
• Theory
• Hypothesis
• Data collection
• Findings
• Hypotheses confirmed or rejected
• Revision of theory Figure 1.1 – see Research in
focus 1.5
Authored by David McHugh
©1
See Research in focus 1.5 - you could use this as an opportunity to explain
relevance of the null hypothesis.
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8. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
You could also use Research in focus 1.5 to point out use of deductive
research to produce findings and of inductive research to interpret findings.
Slide 1.12 The Process of Induction
The Process of Induction
• Compare theory
• Develop theory
• Look for patterns
• Form Categories
• Ask Questions
• Gather information
Authored by David McHugh
©1
See Research in focus 1.6 (& 1.11)
Point out that the use of inductive research to develop categories for
deductive research shows the cyclical and/or interdependent nature of the
research process within a discipline even where individual choices about
research projects may emphasise one over the other – could also link this to
the research example re slide 1.14.
Slide 1.13 Influences on Social Research
Influences on Social Research
Practical considerations
Theory Epistemology
Social Research
Values Ontology
Figure 1.2
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Use mainly as an introduction to slides 1.14-20
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9. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
9

10. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.14 Epistemology and Ontology
Epistemology and Ontology
 Epistemology
Epistemology:  Ontology
Ontology:
 Natural science  Objectivism
model  Structural analysis
 Positivism  Attitudinal analysis
 Realism
 Empirical realism
 Critical realism
 Interpretivism  Constructionism
 Verstehen  Categorical analysis
 Phenomenology  Discourse analysis
 Hermeneutics
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Emphasise the categories as indicators of different strands of
research/analysis which can be applied to the same research topic.
You might also point out that objectivism and constructionism are often
referred to under the blanket heading of ‘anti-positivism’ with the implication
that they embody a series of disparate approaches that often only have their
opposition to positivism in common.
Key point: Epistemological considerations loom large in considerations of
research strategy. To a large extent, these revolve around the
desirability of employing a natural science model (and in
particular positivism) versus interpretivism.
Ontological considerations, concerning objectivism versus
constructionism, also constitute important dimensions of the
quantitative/qualitative contrast.
Slide 1.15 What Is Positivism?
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11. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
What Is Positivism?
Five elements:
1. Phenomalism - knowledge must be confirmed by
the senses
2. Inductivism - facts gathered to generate laws
3. Deductivism - role of theory is generation of
hypotheses to be tested
4. Objectivism - objectivity in the gathering and
analysis of data
5. Concern with scientific rather than normative
statements
See Key concept 1.7 & Research
in focus 1.8
Authored by David McHugh
©1
You could either discuss or explain the difference between scientific &
normative statements:
Discussion point: introduce the notions of falsifiability & probability:
Falsifiablity - Popper, which is basically the notion that to 'prove' or
verify any hypotheses it has to be examined under all conditions and
contexts, which is practicably impossible, and that science
progresses by the serial disproof of hypotheses.
Probability - mixes falsification and verification in focus on testing
statistical significance of hypotheses predicted from laws, possibly
the main form of positivism these days and an important distinction in
that we can often only show a probability value for even the disproof
of a hypothesis because of a reliance on correlational data.
Slide 1.16 What is Realism?
What is Realism?
• Natural and social sciences can and should apply the same
approach to collecting data and to explanation
• There is an external reality to which scientists direct their at tention
(see glossary in text)
• Empirical realism
– asserts that, through the use of appropriate methods, external reality
can be understood
– Implies that categories refer to real objects
• Critical realism
– recognizes the reality of the natural order
– recognizes events and discourses of the social world
– seeks to identify the structures at work that generate those events
and discourses
– admits into explanation theoretical terms not directly amenable to
observation
See Key Concept 1.9
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Explain how critical realism tries to bridge the gap between objectivist &
constructionist approaches & link this to slide 1.21 & the discussion of
paradigms.
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12. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.17 What is Interpretivism?
What is Interpretivism?
Interpretivism is taken to denote an alternative to the
positivist orthodoxy that has held sway for decades. It is
predicated upon the view that a strategy is required that
respects the differences between people and the
objects of the natural sciencesand therefore requires
the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of
social action. Its intellectual heritage includes: Weber's
notion of Verstehen; the hermeneutic-phenomenological
tradition; and symbolic interactionism.
see Key concept 1.10 & Research in focus1.11
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Refer to Research in focus 1.11, emphasise how Grint uses leadership as a
construct to highlight the experience of leadership as opposed to a set of
deductive concepts or categories.
Slide 1.18 What is Objectivism?
What is Objectivism?
Objectivism is an ontological position that
asserts that social phenomena and their
meanings have an existence that is independent
of social actors. It implies that social phenomena
and the categories that we use in everyday
discourse have an existence that is independent
or separate from actors.
Key concept 1.13
Authored by David McHugh
©1
The best approach here may be to point out how conventional wisdom treats
organisations as concrete, objective entities and then using the examples of
social order and culture from the text show how such constraints reinforce this
impression in our everyday experience.
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13. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.19 What is Constructionism?
What is Constructionism?
• Also referred to as constructivism
• Social phenomena and their meanings are continually
being generated by social actors
• Social phenomena and categories are produced
through social interaction
• Social phenomena and categories are are in a constant
state of revision
• Researchers' own accounts of the social world are
constructions
• Knowledge is viewed as indeterminate
see Key concept 1.14 & Research in focus 1.15
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Refer to Key concept 1.14 & Research in focus 1.15 emphasise the notion of
sense-making processes in the Linstead example.
Slide 1.20 Fundamental Differences Between Quantitative
and Qualitative Research Strategies
Fundamental Differences Between Quantitative
and Qualitative Research Strategies
Quantitative Qualitative
Principal Deductive Inductive
orientation to the
role of theory in
relation to research
Epistemological Natural science Interpretivism
orientation model, in
particular
positivism
Ontological Objectivism Constructionism
orientation Table 1.1
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Use this as a link to introduce debates in Chapters 24 & 25 on hybrid research
and/or introduce the theme of feminist research reflected throughout the text.
Key point: Quantitative and qualitative research constitute different
approaches to social investigation and carry with them important
epistemological and ontological considerations.
Feminist researchers have tended to prefer a qualitative
approach, though there is some evidence of a change of
viewpoint in this regard.
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14. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.21 Paradigms
Paradigms
• A cluster of beliefs and dictates that influence:
– What should be studied
– How research should be done
– How results should be interpreted
• Features:
– Incommensurability
– Social science consists of competing paradigms and
is itself pre-paradigmatic
see Key concept 1.16
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Perhaps it is best here to simply explain the notion of notion of
incommensurability and preface a wider discussion of the issue in relation
to slide 1.23.
Refer to Key concept 1.16 – explanation of Thomas Kuhn’s Scientific
Politics; the notion that natural and positivist science does not follow even
its own laws of progress and laws change to follow social/situational
expediency. Methods are mainly to examine accounts and cases of
scientific work to elicit political, organisational or professional influences on
scientific progress.
Discussion point: Kuhn's theory itself could be said to constitute a form
of law:
(New) Dominant paradigm -
(normal science)
Crisis Empirical anomalies
Alternative theories -
(rejected and vilified in the main)
but the point is that change and often scientific work in itself is not always
pursued for scientific reasons.
Key point: These considerations have informed the ‘four paradigm’ model
which has been an important influence on business and
management research.
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15. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.22 Social Paradigms
Social Paradigms
Radical
Radical humanist Radical structuralist
S Social arrangements Structural power
u O
Emancipatory practice Conflict b
b
j j
e e
c c
t Interpretive Functionalist t
i Social construction? Rationality i
v v
Experiental Problem-solving
i i
s s
t t
Regulatory
Based on Burrell & Morgan, 1981
Authored by David McHugh
©1
This is based on Burrell and Morgan’s (1979) Refer to the text p. 26. You
could possibly explain Burrell & Morgan’s four strands of analysis:
 Ontology
 Epistemology
 Methodology
 Theory of human nature
Discussion point: Organisation Theory has moved along since Burrell
&Morgan produced the original of this, notably in the areas of labour
process theory and other notions ranging from post-fordism to post
modernism, a good exercise here would perhaps be to attempt to locate
these approaches on the 'map' of organisation theory.
Slide 1.23 Multiple Paradigm Research
Multiple Paradigm Research
• Functionalist
– Survey of job motivation
• Interpretive
– Conversational data on work routines
• Radical humanist
– Descriptive analysis of management training
• Radical structuralist
– Historical analysis of employment relations
Based on Hassard 1991, see Research in focus1.17
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Refer to Research in focus 1.17 – emphasise Hassard’s work as embodying
alternate versions of the same reality. You could also possibly reprise the
issue of incommensurability as discussed on p.26 of the text.
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16. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Slide 1.24 Values
Values
• Can reflect the beliefs or feelingsof a researcher
• Can produce biasat any or all points in the social research
process, e.g.:
– choice of research area and methods
– formulation of research question, research design and
data collection techniques
– implementation of data collection
– analysis and interpretation of data
– Conclusions
• Can produce affinity or sympathy, especially to
underdog groups
• Can be antithetical to values of many managers
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Emphasise the debate between value-laden & value free research as a link to
the next chapter.
Key point: Values may impinge on the research process at different times.
Slide 1.25 Practical Considerations
Practical Considerations
• May influence or determine choices on:
– research strategy
– design
– method
– resources & costs
• May be influenced or determined by:
– nature of the topic
– people being investigated
– political acceptability
Authored by David McHugh
©1
Discussion point: Take the opportunity here to remind students of the
Research Project Guide where these issues will be discussed further
and ask for examples of the kind of practical considerations students
have or may face in their own dissertations/projects.
Key point: Practical considerations in decisions about research methods
are also important.
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17. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY by Mr. Shaya’a Othman,
Academic Fellow, INSANIAH University College
Extra Reading on General Introduction of Research
Problem-spotting
1. It is difficult for business students to take a purist approach to research
due to practical considerations, especially timescale & difficulties of
access – thus feasibility is a major factor of research projects.
2. There is a tendency to treat theories and models uncritically and as
themselves embodying particular perspectives rather than examining
the methodological stance or methods of the research they are based
on – or else students may critique particular studies on a
methodological basis, but often fail to examine the methodological
basis of theories and models they adopt e.g. Blake & Mouton’s
managerial grid or Belbin’s role analysis.
3. Students often use phenomenological strategies, qualitative methods in
general and specific approaches such as grounded theory as if they
were interchangeable, it is important to be as specific as possible when
specifying methodological approaches in these areas.
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