history

1. The Islamic empire that dominated much of the
Mediterranean region from the fourteenth to the
twentieth centuries

2. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 The Ottoman Empire was the Turkish Muslim empires. It
spread from Asia encompassing most of the Middle East,
most of North Africa, and parts of Europe, including
modern Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Rumania and
Yugoslavia.
 In the, Middle East; Syria, Palestine, Egypt, parts of Arabia
and Iraq.
 The empire reached around the Black sea and into the
Caucasus in Central Asia, including Aremenia. The
Ottoman armies reached as far as the gates of Vienna,
where they were repulsed for a second time in 1683. The
map below shows the extent of the Ottoman Empire in
1683.

3. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 The Ottoman Empire was founded about 1307 by Osman I,
Subsequent rulers continued the expansion. The ruler of
the Ottoman Empire after its rise assumed the title of
Sultan. The Sultan also assumed the role of the Muslim
Caliph.
 The progress of the empire was explosive. In 1453, the
Sultan Mohamad II conquered Constantinople (renamed
Istanbul) putting an end to the Eastern Roman Empire.
 The Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent conquered modern
Yugoslavia in 1521, and conquered Hungary after his victory
at the battle of Mohacs in 1526. However, he failed to take
Vienna after winter forced an end to his siege in 1529. The
Ottomans went on to take Transylvania and Wallachia as
well.

4. OTTOMAN EMPIRE

5. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 The Ottoman Empire was a significant part of European
politics. It entered into a military alliance with France,
England and the Netherlands against Habsburg Spain, Italy
and Habsburg Austria. The Ottoman navy aided Francis
the I to take Nice from the Holy Roman Empire.
 At the height of its power (1683), the Ottoman Empire
controlled territory in the Near East and North Africa, as
well as Central and Southeastern Europe.
 In 1683, Ottoman power was checked at its final zenith
when the siege of Vienna failed. The empire began a
decline marked by increasing backwardness relative to
Europe.

6. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 The Eastern Question emerged as the power of the
Ottoman Empire began to decline during the 17th
century. The Ottomans were at the height of their
power in 1683, when they lost the Battle of Vienna to
Austria. Peace was made much later, in 1699, with the
Treaty of Karlowitz, which forced the Ottoman Empire
to cede many of its Central European possessions,
including Hungary. Its westward expansion arrested,
the Ottoman Empire never again posed a serious
threat to Austria, which became the dominant power
in its region of Europe.

7. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 The Eastern Question is normally dated to 1774, when the
Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) ended in defeat for the
Ottomans. As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was
believed to be imminent, the European powers engaged in a
power struggle to safeguard their military, strategic and
commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. Imperial
Russia stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman
Empire; on the other hand, Austria-Hungary and the
United Kingdom deemed the preservation of the Empire to
be in their best interests. The Eastern Question was put to
rest after World War I, one of whose outcomes was the
collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

8. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 The Eastern Question did not truly develop until the Russo-
Turkish Wars of the 18th century. The first of the wars,
which began in 1768, ended in 1774 with the Treaty of
Kuchuk-Kainarji. permitted Russia to act as the protector of
Orthodox Christians under the sovereignty of the Ottoman
Sultan, and established Russia as a major Black Sea power.
 Another Russo-Turkish conflict began in 1787. The Empress
of Russia, Catherine II, entered into an alliance with the
Austrian ruler, the Emperor Joseph II; the two agreed to
partition the Ottoman Empire between their respective
nations, thereby alarming many European powers, especially
the United Kingdom, France, and Prussia.

9. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Austria was most directly opposed to the Russian designs
on the Ottoman Empire. Though the Austrian House of
Habsburg was the foremost opponent of the Ottomans in
prior centuries, Austria deemed the Ottoman threat to be
much less serious than a Russian advance along the
Danube River. Austria also feared that the disintegration of
the Ottoman Empire into several nation states would foster
the sentiment of nationalism among the many ethnic
groups in her own Empire. Thus, Austria made it one of her
primary goals to maintain the unity of the Ottoman
Empire.

10. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Serbian revolution or Revolutionary Serbia refers to the
national and social revolution of the Serbian people between
1804 and 1815, during which Serbia managed to fully emancipate
from the Ottoman Empire and exist as a sovereign European
nation-state, While the first phase of the revolution (1804–1815)
was in fact a war of independence, the second phase (1815–1833)
resulted in official recognition of a suzerain Serbian state by the
Porte, thus bringing the revolution to its end.
 The Proclamation (1809) by Karadjordje in the capital Belgrade
represented the peak of the revolution. It called for unity of the
Serbian nation, emphasising the importance of freedom of
religion, Serbian history and rule of law.
 The ultimate result of the uprisings was Serbia's suzerainty from
the Ottoman Empire.

11. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Greek Revolt
 The Eastern Question once again became a major European issue when the
Greeks declared independence from the Sultan in 1821. It was at about this time
that the phrase "Eastern Question" was coined. Emperor of Russia sought to
invade the Ottoman Empire, and the Greek Revolt seemed to make an invasion
even more likely. The British foreign minister, Robert Stewart, Viscount
Castlereagh, as well as the Austrian foreign minister, Metternich, counseled the
Emperor of Russia, Alexander I, not to enter the war.
 Alexander's death in 1825 brought Nicholas I to the Imperial Throne of Russia.
He chose to intervene in Greece. The United Kingdom also soon became
involved, interested in imposing its will on a newly formed Greek state in part
to prevent it becoming a wholly Russian vassal. France too aligned itself with
the Greeks, but Austria (still worried about Russian expansion) did not.
Outraged by the interference of the Great Powers, the Ottoman Sultan,
Mahmud II, denounced Russia as an enemy of Islam, prompting Russia to
declare war in 1828. An alarmed Austria sought to form an anti-Russian
coalition, but its attempts were in vain.

12. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Greek Revolt
 As the war continued into 1829, Russia gained a firm advantage
over the Ottoman Empire.
 Thus, Russia was able to secure neither a decisive defeat nor a
partition of the Ottoman Empire. She chose, however, to adopt
the policy of degrading the Ottoman Empire to a mere
dependency. In 1829, the Emperor of Russia concluded the
Treaty of Adrianople with the Sultan; his empire was granted
additional territory along the Black Sea, Russian commercial
vessels were granted access to the Dardanelles, and the
commercial rights of Russians in the Ottoman Empire were
enhanced. The Greek War of Independence was terminated
shortly thereafter, as Greece was granted independence by the
Treaty of Constantinople in 1832.

13. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Muhammad Ali (Egypt)
 Just after the Greek Revolt a conflict broke out between the
Sultan and his nominal viceroy in Egypt, Muhammad Ali. The
modern and well trained Egyptians looked as though they could
conquer the entire empire.
 The Tsar of Russia, in keeping with his policy of reducing the
Ottoman Sultan to a petty vassal, offered to form an alliance with
the Sultan.
 In 1833, the two rulers negotiated the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, in
which Russia achieved the aim of securing complete dominance
over the Ottomans. The Russians undertook to protect the
Empire from external attacks; in turn, the Sultan pledged to close
the Dardanelles to warships whenever Russia was at war. This
provision of the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi raised a problem known
as the "Straits Question."

14. OTTOMAN EMPIRE

15. OTTOMAN EMPIRE

16. OTTOMAN EMPIRE

17. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Muhammad Ali (Egypt)
 The agreement provided for the closure of all warships, but
many European statesmen mistakenly believed that the
clause failed to restrict Russian vessels. The United Kingdom
and France were angered by the misinterpreted clause; they
also sought to contain Russian expansion. The two
kingdoms, however, differed on the means of achieving their
objective; the British wished to uphold the Sultan, but the
French preferred to make Muhammad Ali the ruler of the
entire Ottoman Empire. Russian intervention led the Sultan
to negotiate a peace with Muhammad Ali in 1833, but war
broke out once again in 1839.

18. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Muhammad Ali (Egypt)
 Sultan Mahmud II died in the same year, leaving the Ottoman
Empire to his son, Abd-ul-Mejid I. The state of affairs at the time
of the new Sultan's accession were extremely critical; the Ottoman
army had been signally defeated by the forces of Muhammad Ali.
Another disaster followed when the entire Turkish fleet was seized
by the Egyptian forces.
 Great Britain and Russia now intervened to prevent the collapse of
the Ottoman Empire, but France still continued to support
Muhammad Ali. In 1840, the Great Powers agreed to compromise;
Muhammad Ali agreed to make a nominal act of submission to
the Sultan, but was granted hereditary control of Egypt.

19. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Muhammad Ali (Egypt)
 The only unresolved issue of the period was the Straits
Question. In 1841, Russia consented to the abrogation of
the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi by accepting the London
Straits Convention. The Great Powers — Russia, the United
Kingdom, France, Austria and Prussia — agreed to the reestablishment of the "ancient rule" of the Ottoman Empire,
which provided that the Turkish straits would be closed to
all warships whatsoever, with the exception of the Sultan's
allies during wartime. With the Straits Convention, the
Russian Emperor Nicholas I abandoned the idea of
reducing the Sultan to a state of dependence, and returned
to the plan of partitioning Ottoman territories in Europe.

20. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Eastern Question
 Muhammad Ali (Egypt)
 Thus, after the resolution of the Egyptian struggle which
had begun in 1831, the weak Ottoman Empire was no
longer wholly dependent on Russia. It was, however, not a
truly independent state, for it relied on the Great Powers of
Europe for protection. Attempts were made at internal
reform, but they failed to terminate the decline of the once
great Empire. By the 1840s, the Ottoman Empire had
become the "sick man of Europe," and its eventual
dissolution appeared inevitable.

21. Russian Empire
V/S
British Empire, France , the Ottoman Empire
and the Kingdom of Sardinia

22. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 Cause:
 It was part of a long-running contest between the major
European powers for influence over territories of the
declining Ottoman Empire.
 Area:
 Crimean Peninsula, western Turkey , the Baltic Sea ,
the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea.
 In Russia it is also known as the "Oriental War" , and in
Britain it is known as the "Russian War".

23. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 France and Britain declared war on Russia on 27 March
and 28 March 1854
 Background:
 After coup d'état of 1851 in France, Napoleon III sent
his ambassador to the Ottoman Empire forced the
Ottomans to recognize France as the "sovereign
authority" in the Holy Land
 Russia did not accept the change in authority, pointing
to two more treaties, one in 1757 and the 1774 Treaty of
Kuchack Keinarji

24. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 the Ottomans reversed their earlier decision, renouncing
the French treaty and insisting that Russia was the
protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman
Empire.
 Napoleon III responded with a show of force;
 sending the ship of the line Charlemagne to the Black Sea.
France's aggressive diplomacy and money, induced Sultan
Abdülmajieed I to accept a new treaty.
 France and the Roman Catholic Church became the
supreme Christian authority in the Holy Land with control
over the Christian holy places and possession of the keys to
the Church of the Nativity, previously held by the Greek
Orthodox Church.

25. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 Tsar Nicholas I then deployed his Army along the River
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Danube, and had his foreign minister, undertake talks with
the Ottomans.
Nicholas I and Foreign Minister Nesselrode began a
diplomatic offensive
Russia Claimed it had an obligation to Christian
communities in the Ottoman Empire.
Demanded a new treaty with the Ottomans which would
allow Russia the same rights of intervention in the affairs of
the Orthodox religion as recently allowed France in respect
of Catholic churches and churchmen.
Such a treaty would allow Russia to control the Orthodox
Church's hierarchy in the Ottoman Empire.

26. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 British Government convinced the Sultan to reject the
treaty, which compromised the independence of the Turks
 The Tsar marched his armies into the Danubian
Principalities ( Moldavia and Wallachia along the Danube,
under Ottoman sovereignty, in which Russia was
acknowledged as a special guardian of the Orthodox
Church)
 Britain sent a fleet to the Dardanelles, where it joined
another fleet sent by France.
 The representatives of the four neutral Great Powers—
Britain, France, Austria and Prussia — met in Vienna,
where they drafted a note

27. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 Nicholas I; accepted but rejected by Abdülmajeed I
 The Sultan formally declared war on 23 October 1853
and proceeded to the attack
 Russia and the Ottoman empire massed forces on two
main fronts, the Caucasus and the Danubian front.
The Ottoman leader Omar Pasha managed to pull in
some victories on the Danubian front. In the Caucasus,
the Ottomans were able to stand ground with the help
of Chechen Muslims, led by Imam Shamil.

28. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 The Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853
 Russia destroyed a frigates of Ottomans while they
were anchored at the port of Sinop, northern Anatolia
 By 28 March 1854, after Russia ignored an AngloFrench ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian
Principalities, Britain and France had formally
declared war.
 Austria threatened by the Russian forces supported
Britain and France
 Russia then withdrew its troops from the Danubian
principalities, which were then occupied by Austria

29. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 This removed the original grounds for war, but Britain and
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France continued with hostilities. Determined to address the
Eastern Question by putting an end to the Russian threat to the
Ottoman Empire, the allies proposed several conditions for a
peaceful resolution, including:
1. Russia was to give up its protectorate over the Danubian
Principalities
2. It was to abandon any claim granting it the right to interfere in
Ottoman affairs on behalf of Orthodox Christians
3. The Straits Convention of 1841 was to be revised
4. All nations were to be granted access to the River Danube
When the Tsar refused to comply with these Four Points, the
Crimean War commenced.

30. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 One of the aims of the Russian advance was to
encourage the Serbs and Bulgars living under Ottoman
rule to rebel
 In June 1854 the Allied expeditionary force landed in
the region and the Crimean campaign opened in
September 1854
 The peace of Paris in March 1856 put an end to war

31. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 Significance:
 The first "modern war
 The weaponry and tactics used had never been seen before
and affected all other wars after it
 First tactical use of railways and the electric telegraph
 The first war covered by press, through photography and
journalists
 The first war with real field hospitals
 Women served as army nurses
 The work of Florence Nightingale, Mary Seacole, Frances
Margaret Taylor and others led to the introduction of
modern nursing methods.

32. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 The Russian military medicine saw dramatic progress:
N. I. Pirogov, known as the father of Russian field
surgery, developed the use of anesthetics, plaster casts,
and enhanced amputation methods in Crimea.
 The war also led to the establishment of the Victoria
Cross in 1856 (backdated to 1854), the British Army's
first universal award for valour.

33. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 The Congress of Paris
 The Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any
naval or military arsenal on the Black Sea coast.
 All the Great Powers pledged to respect the
independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman
Empire.
 The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was
defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of
1870–1871.

34. The Crimean War
October 1853–February 1856
 Russia, exploiting nationalist unrest in the Ottoman
states in the Balkans and seeking to regain lost
prestige, once again declared war on the Ottoman
Empire on 24 April 1877.
 In this later Russo-Turkish War the states of Romania,
Serbia and Montenegro achieved independence and
Bulgaria its autonomy.

35. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Great Eastern Crisis
 In 1875, the territory of Herzegovina rebelled against the Sultan,
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which led to insurrection in the Province of Bosnia as well as in
Bulgaria.
The Great Powers believed that their intervention was necessary.
War break out in the Balkans. The first to act were the members
of the League of the Three Emperors (Germany, Austria-Hungary
and Russia), They urged the Sultan to institute various reforms,
including one granting religious liberty to Christians.
The Note was submitted to the Sultan, whose agreement was
secured on 31 January 1876.
The Herzegovinian leaders, however, rejected the proposal,
pointing out that the Sultan had already made promises to
institute reforms but had failed to fulfill them.

36. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Great Eastern Crisis
 Representatives of the Three Emperors met once again in
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Berlin, approved the Berlin Memorandum.
To convince the Herzegovinians that the Sultan would
indeed keep his promises.
In the meantime, Abd-ul-Hamid II came to power.
The hardships of the Ottomans had increased; their
treasury was empty, and they faced an insurrection not only
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in Serbia, Montenegro
and Bulgaria.
Still, the Ottoman Empire managed to crush the insurgents
in August 1876.

37. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Great Eastern Crisis
 Rumours of Ottoman atrocities against the rebellious population
shocked European sensibilities.
 Russia intended to enter the war on the side of the rebels.
 Delegates of the Great Powers assembled at the Constantinople
Conference in 1876.
 The Sultan, refused to compromise his independence by allowing
international representatives to oversee the institution of reforms
in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
 Russia declared war on 24 April 1877.
 Reichstadt Agreement, under which Ottoman territories
captured in the course of the war would be partitioned between
the Russian and Austria-Hungarian Empires, with the latter
obtaining Bosnia and Herzegovina.

38. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Great Eastern Crisis
 When Russia threatened to secure Constantinople, British Prime
Minister Benjamin Disraeli urged Austria and Germany to ally
with him against this tyrannical war aim.
 As a result, Russia sued for peace through the Treaty of San
Stefano, which imposed harsh terms: the Empire was to grant
independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro; to grant
autonomy to Bulgaria; to institute reforms in Bosnia and
Herzegovina; and to cede the Dobruja and parts of Armenia to
Russia
 Due to the insistence of the Great Powers (especially the United
Kingdom), the treaty was heavily revised at the Congress of
Berlin so as to reduce the great advantages acquired by Russia.

39. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Great Eastern Crisis
 The Treaty of Berlin adjusted the boundaries of the
newly independent states in the Ottoman Empire's
favour.
 Ottoman cessions to Russia were largely sustained, and
Bosnia and Herzegovina (though still nominally within
the Ottoman Empire) were transferred to Austrian
control.
 In addition, the Ottoman island of Cyprus was given to
the United Kingdom via a secret agreement.

40. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Germany and the Ottoman Empire
 In the latter part of the nineteenth century, the positions of
some of the Great Powers in relation to each other and to
the Ottoman Empire began to shift.
 Distressed by the conduct of the Germans in revising the
Treaty of San Stefano, Russia left the League of the Three
Emperors.
 Germany drew closer to Austria-Hungary, with whom she
concluded the Dual Alliance in 1879.
 Germany also became more friendly towards the Ottoman
Empire, which became a close German ally.


41. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 The Germans took over the re-organisation of the Ottoman
military and financial system; in return, they received
several commercial concessions, including permission to
build the Baghdad Railway, which secured for them access
to several important economic markets.
 Germany was driven not only by commercial interests, but
also by an imperialistic and militaristic rivalry with the
United Kingdom.
 The United Kingdom, meanwhile, agreed to the Entente
Cordiale with France in 1904, thereby resolving differences
between the two countries over international affairs.
 The United Kingdom also reconciled with Russia in 1907
with the Anglo-Russian Entente.

42. OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 Bosnian Crisis
 In 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress (more commonly
called the Young Turks), a political party opposed to the absolute
rule of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II, led a rebellion against their ruler.
 The pro-reform Young Turks deposed the Sultan in 1909,
replacing him with the ineffective Mehmed V. In the following
years, various constitutional and political reforms were
instituted, but the decay of the Ottoman Empire continued.
 Austria-Hungary's plans were opposed by Serbia, which sought
Russian assistance. Russia, however, could not comply; a defeat in
the Russo-Japanese War had devastated her, and Germany
threatened to support Austria-Hungary during a war. The United
Kingdom and France, who were not directly concerned by the
annexation, did not become involved. Thus unaided, Serbia was
forced to renounce her opposition to the annexation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina.