2. Experiments
Social surveys (incl questionnaires)
Informal/unstructured interviews
Observation (participant and non-participant)
Use of secondary data
3. Validity
If the findings of
research reflect the
reality they describe
then they are valid.
I.E. Information
obtained is truthful
Reliability
If the findings can be
checked by another
researcher and the
results obtained will
be the same
Can someone else
doing the same
research, in the same
way, get the same
results?
4. Sociological research can produce two different
kinds of data:
Quantitative -research based on numbers and
statistics, presented in bar charts, graphs, tables
etc ( easier and faster to analyse, may be
limited in scope)
Qualitative – Descriptive research in form of
words, views explained in words, not
quantified (difficult to analyse, needs to be
coded)
6. Experiments
(p.28-9) Usually start with a hypothesis
Take place in controlled
environment (variables all the
same)
Not common in sociology
(difficult with humans)
‘Positivists’ approve of this
method- ‘sociology should be more
scientific’
Need to be objective-not let own
values influence outcome
7. Experiments
•Hawthorne Effect
-If subjects know they
are being studied their
behaviour is affected
and the outcome
changed – results
becoming invalid
•Based on research in
Hawthorne factory in
USA
•Ref: textbook p.28
Problems with experiments
Hawthorne Effect
Ethics – concealing real
purpose of research –is it
right to deceive?
Artificiality-tests short term
effects, situations are not
natural, measure short term
changes
Ref: textbook p.29
9. Questions
•Could this have
been done in a
laboratory?
•Why have a
‘control’ group?
•Which two
variables were
found to relate to
each other?
An example of a field experiment
Researchers: Rosenthal and
Jacobson
Place/time: San Francisco primary
school ,1960s
Investigated effect of teacher’s
expectations on academic
performance
Researchers said 20% to be ‘high-
attainers’ based on IQ test. (not
true)
Children (randomly selected) did
improve performance dramatically
over 18 months
10. Self-completion
1. Posted to/ handed to
respondent
2. Low response rate (don’t
bother to reply)
3. Cheaper
4. Sometimes misunderstood
5. Can reach larger group
6. Said to be reliable because
can be carried out by other
researchers
7. May not be valid-pre-set
questions close off
possible answers/issues
Interview
1. Researcher reads out
questions, records
respondent’s answers
2. Good response rate
3. Expensive (pay staff)
4. Questions can be
explained if necessary
5. More time-consuming
6. May be more valid
because respondent can
give intended response
11. What is a pilot study?
A small
scale, preliminary test
of the questionnaire
Putting problems
right at an early stage
can save time, effort
and money later on
Aim:
it helps researchers
spot problems early
on, before the research
is fully underway
By testing out the
questionnaire out on a
few people first,
difficult questions can
be re-written or
removed
12. Open
Allows respondent to
answer in own way
Harder to make it
quantitative (to
produce as a statistic)
More likely to reflect
what respondent
wanted to say (valid)
truthfully
Closed
‘Fixed-choice’ question:
two way or multiple
choice
Can be scaled (strongly
agree, agree etc)
Easy to analyse and
quantify (present as
graph etc)
May limit respondent’s
response
13. Closed (fixed choice)questions:
Q. Outline your reasons for choosing to study
sociology:
I wanted to try something new
It was recommended to me by a teacher
I think it will help me with my future career
I didn’t know what else to choose
Open-ended questions:
Q. Why did you opt for sociology at IGCSE?
____________________________________
14. Think carefully about what you want to find out
Use questions respondent wants to and is able to answer
Word the questions in an unprejudiced way
Respect respondents right to refuse to answer
Choose a sample carefully (the smaller group which is
representative of the larger group you want to
investigate)
Carry out a pilot study first (a very small trial group)
Use a combination of both open and closed questions
in your questionnaire
16. Widely used technique in social research
Needs good interpersonal skills and careful
preparation
Suitable for sensitive topics
Can produce valid data although it is not easily
replicated (i.e. Less likely to be reliable)
There are two types of interviews: structured
and unstructured ( for’ Structured Interviews’
see questionnaires p.30,31)
17. STRENGTHS
LIMITATIONS
Higher response rate (than
self-completion
questionnaires)
Respondents can answer
in own words (greater
validity)
More personal issues may
be explored, candidate
may feel they can trust the
interviewer after rapport
had been developed
Interviewer needs to be skilled
Interviewer bias /effect* may
interfere with course of interview or
results
Recording of content time-
consuming/difficult/difficult to
categorise data as much might be off
topic/difficult to generalise from
Takes long time (interview itself)
and more costly than S.C.Q.
Can’t be checked for reliability
*Interview bias occurs when the
interviewer may lead, distort or present
data in a biased way. /Influences the
way the interviewee answers questions:
can include characteristics such as
ethnicity, age , gender etc.
18. In real life, both structured and unstructured
interviews are not always two distinctly different
options. They vary in the degree to which they are one
or the other.
Different research projects are suited to different
interview approaches
If you need to count something..opt for the structured
interview
If you want to find out why people behave in
particular way..opt for unstructured interviews-
Focus group
-popular.
Group discusses topics while interviewer
listens, makes notes (market research/political parties)
19. Write out and learn definitions for the
following:
Interview bias
Sample
Pilot study
Respondent
Open-ended questions
Self-completion questionnaire
Response rate
Hawthorne effect
Ethical issue
Hypothesis
Generalisations