Much of what is known about memory comes from studying memory disorders like amnesia, which is a loss of memory. Amnesia can be caused by damage to parts of the temporal lobe or midline diencephalic region. Other disorders like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's can also affect memory. Studying different forms of amnesia has provided insights into the brain's memory systems.
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Disorders memory
1. Disorders
Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory
disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can
result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as
the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal,
entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices[13] or the (b) midline diencephalic region,
specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of
the hypothalamus[14]. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different
forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of
the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally
working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and
Parkinson's disease [15] can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or
hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical
memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise
would not be stored.[16] Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis,
amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects
memory.
While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of word retrieval from memory is
the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Sufferers of Nominal Aphasia (also called
Anomia), however, do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing
basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain
Methods
Methods to optimize memorization
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information
verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things
have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as
Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual
is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended
period of time. In contrast to this is cramming which is intensive memorisation in a
short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people
remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called
Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.
Interference from previous knowledge
At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University, researchers have found
that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children
and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The findings
appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.
Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference,
when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information[17] and
proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information.
Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there
2. are situation when old information can facilitate learning of new information.
Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as
French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer [18].
Influence of odors and emotions
In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new
memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered
better later.[19] Emotion can have a powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies
have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional
events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail
than neutral events.[20]
Memory tasks
Paired associate learning - when one learns to associate one specific word with
another. For example when given a word such as "safe" one must learn to say
another specific word, such as "green". This is stimulus and response.[23]
Free recall - during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and
then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that
they can remember.[24]
Recognition - subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after
which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures
from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list.[25]
Physiology
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the
amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in
specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in
spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved
in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and
subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than
implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway
traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is
not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent
on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal
synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression.
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that
any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be
consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false.
Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of
recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that
excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the
amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory
storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally
charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for
explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The
3. hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out
to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary
sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage
may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage.[11]
Looking To Improve Your Memory?
Improved memory can help you in many facets of your life. Having greater and quicker
recall will give you an incredible advantage at school and at work. If you are looking for
that advantage through increased memory there are three systems that I would highly
encourage you to look at:
The Mammoth Memory Course - This is actually three courses in one. Mammoth
memory teaches you how to increase your recall through many different techniques
like 'Association' and training your sensory memory. Mammoth memory actually comes
with 2 other courses FREE, Power Thinking and Lazy Learning, which give you practical
tools to increase your cognitive skills and absorption. Check out their free preview!
Infinite Memory - Another extensive offering that includes loads of bonus material. At
the core Infinite memory teaches you how to train your brain to remember using 5
central techniques or 'systems'; Link, Room, Alphabet, Phonetic and Body. Ryan
Cameron, the author, believes (as do I) that the brain a;ready has the ability and
capacity to be an incredible recall machine, it's simply a matter of re-asserting that
ability. Take a look, and notice all the bonus material, it's a great value!
Memory Improvement - This is a combination of books and software. It was designed
to get results in with the minimal of time investment, 5 minutes a day. But of course,
there is no free lunch. You need to be extremely consistent with your training. This
resource centers around 12 memory techniques and is bundled with the classic Roth
Memory Course, among many other bonuses.
There are a staggering number of free games that improve your memory online. While
most are designed to be amusing distractions, they can also help expand the capacity
of your memory. Perhaps the most well known game that can improve your memory is
the game called concentration. While various free versions exist online, the game can
be played with a regular deck of playing cards. Concentration (sometimes called
Memory) can be played alone or with opponents and can be made simple or complex.
The object of the game is to identify pairs of cards that are randomly placed face
down. On each turn the player gets to turn over two cards. If the two cards are a pair,
they are removed from the field and the player continues. If they do not match, all
players see the location of both cards and they are again turned face down. The
players take turns turning over cards and identifying the location of each type and
pair. Over time, the opponent with the better memory and recall performs better and
wins by accumulating the most pairs.
4. Computer Memory Games
Computers have facilitated an explosion of free games that improve your memory that go
far beyond a table and a pack of cards. With graphical browsers, mouse-controlled cursors
and color screens, our memory can be challenged in any number of ways. Some games test
spatial memory and sequence by requiring the player remember the location of objects in
space and in a specific order. Other games require memory for tones, colors or patterns.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory
http://www.brainhealthandpuzzles.com/human_memory.html
http://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/cognition/tutorials/ModelOf/Knowmore1.html
http://www.funbrain.com/cgi-bin/fm.cgi
http://www.buzzle.com/games/MetroMatch.asp
![Disorders
Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory
disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can
result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as
the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal,
entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices[13] or the (b) midline diencephalic region,
specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of
the hypothalamus[14]. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different
forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of
the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally
working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and
Parkinson's disease [15] can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or
hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical
memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise
would not be stored.[16] Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis,
amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects
memory.
While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of word retrieval from memory is
the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Sufferers of Nominal Aphasia (also called
Anomia), however, do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing
basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain
Methods
Methods to optimize memorization
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information
verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things
have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as
Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual
is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended
period of time. In contrast to this is cramming which is intensive memorisation in a
short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people
remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called
Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.
Interference from previous knowledge
At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University, researchers have found
that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children
and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The findings
appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.
Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference,
when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information[17] and
proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information.
Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/disordersmemory-120427065452-phpapp02/85/Disorders-memory-1-320.jpg)
![are situation when old information can facilitate learning of new information.
Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as
French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer [18].
Influence of odors and emotions
In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new
memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered
better later.[19] Emotion can have a powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies
have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional
events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail
than neutral events.[20]
Memory tasks
Paired associate learning - when one learns to associate one specific word with
another. For example when given a word such as "safe" one must learn to say
another specific word, such as "green". This is stimulus and response.[23]
Free recall - during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and
then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that
they can remember.[24]
Recognition - subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after
which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures
from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list.[25]
Physiology
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the
amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in
specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in
spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved
in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and
subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than
implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway
traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is
not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent
on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal
synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression.
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that
any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be
consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false.
Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of
recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that
excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the
amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory
storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally
charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for
explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)