Impact of continuing professional development (cpd) of teachers in information and communication technology to learning science

TITLE PAGE

ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ON THE IMPACT OF
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) OF TEACHERS
IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY TO
LEARNING SCIENCE

BY

ABDULLAHI AMINAT

NOU 060241125

MINNA STUDY CENTER

BEING ORIGINAL PROJECT SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, LAGOS, IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER
OF EDUCATION IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

JUNE 2010

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CERTIFICATION

This thesis by Aminat Abdullahi has met the requirements for the

award of master of Education degree in science education of the National

Open University of Nigeria, and is approved for its contribution to knowledge.

…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….

DR. D.I WUSHISHI SIGNATURE DATE

(Supervisor)

…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….

DR. FRANCIS GANA SIGNATURE DATE

(Centre Manager)

…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….

(External Examiner) SIGNATURE DATE

…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….

(HOD Science Education) SIGNATURE DATE

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DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to Mrs. Habibat Onu Suleiman for her

financial, moral, continual and unrelenting support. My Kids Fadilah, Safiya

and Mustapha. The memory of my late mother Hauwa and Husband Bello

Abdullahi. May Allah grant their souls al-jannatul firdaus.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise and appreciation goes to Allah (S.W.T) who bestowed his

protection, guidance and mercies on me, who also granted me patience,

wisdom and knowledge in completing the thesis and studies in spite of all

odds. This work has been successful through the immerse guidance,

experience and expert supervision of Dr. D.I Wushishi of the department of

Science education, Federal University of technology, for his assistance all

through the processes of questionnaire designing and data analysis. During

this processes, he had offered invaluable suggestions and criticisms,

invaluable role of proof reading the thesis and providing necessary guidance,

correction and very useful suggestions which saw the thesis through to

completion.

My profound gratitude goes to my ever supporting sister Hajaratu and

her Husband, Moh‟d Suleiman for their overwhelming moral support. I will

also say „thank You‟ to my dear Husband Mal Salihu Isah Lemu for his moral

support which has rekindled my life. I am also indebted to Aisha Suleiman for

her patience and assistance accorded to me during the process of data

analysis. My indebtedness also goes to Aisha Mohammed a Colleague, a

friend and confidant for her understanding throughout the period of my

studies. My sincere gratitude goes to all the principals, H.O.D science and

computer teachers and students of the schools visited for this study. „Thank

you‟ to Fatima L. Yakubu C.B.N Abuja for her financial and moral support

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accorded to me. I am most grateful to all my family members for the moral

support given to me throughout the period of my studies.

I am also grateful to all my colleagues and members of staff of

ETF/CERC. Most especially Sala Emmanuel Yisa head of computer unit ETF

for his patience, endurance and unrelenting assistance and guidance given

to me in the laboratory when sourcing for data and Abdulkadir K. Ibrahim for

being there for me anytime I needed his assistance. My appreciation also

goes to Mr. Suleiman Agboola Head of ICT ERC Minna for his necessary

correction and pain taken to see to the successful completion of the analysis.

I am also indebted and grateful to my typist Emmanuel Chinedu Okonkwo of

Federal University of Technology Minna. I will not fail to acknowledge my late

brother Dr. Suleiman Danjuma Suleiman for his inspiration and

encouragement to embark on this course may Allah grant him al-jannatul

firdaus.

My special gratitude goes to the entire members of staff of National

Open University of Nigeria minna study centre for their encouragement most

especially Mrs. S.A. Alao, the centre‟s manger Dr. Francis Gana and Ndagi.

Alhamdullilah.

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ABSTRACT

This research is on the attitude of secondary school students on the impact
of continuing professional development of teachers in information and
communication technology to learning science. Four schools were used for
this study namely El-Amin International College, New Horizon College,
Himma International College and Hill-Top Model School. Descriptive survey
method using a questionnaire tagged “QICPDTICTASSSS” was used for
data collection. It was validated by three experts and by pilot tested using
test retest method. The reliability was calculated using the pearson product
moment correlation coefficient and coefficient of relation (rxx) 0.89 was
obtained. The results were calculated using simple distribution table, Anova
and Scheffe‟s Test using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS)
software. The results obtained showed significant differences in the attitude
of students to the impact of continuing professional development of teachers
in information and communication technology to learning of science. It was
recommended that teacher training and professional development oriented
policies should be made by government to support ICT related teaching
models.

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CHAPTER ONE

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Technology has changed the way people live, work and learns.

The use of technology in education is one of the main challenges for

education policy makers (Zalzadeh, 2006). Traditional methods of

education are no longer able to meet the needs of today‟s learner.

New technologies provide opportunities, including the ability to tailor

learning to the individual (Aminpoor, 2007). In view of the above

statement, there is need for continuing education of teachers to meet

these global challenges of technology to make teaching and learning

more meaningful.

However, professional development have attracted increasing

attention in recent years (Anna Craft,2000) faced with rapid change,

demand for high standards calls for improving quality of teachers and

the need to update and improve their skills through professional

development. Recently, there are pressures at national and school

levels of professionalism in information and communication

technology. These arise from the demand for increased quality and the

need to implement the national curriculum. The interest in Information

and Communication Technology (ICT) is hardly surprising given the

worldwide impact ICT is having on many aspect of modern life

especially in the field of education. Harnessing the power of ICT to

support education is a major challenge, for not only is the technology

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itself changing very rapidly, but education systems are culturally

bound. Fullan (1991) highlighted the possibilities of bringing about

changes in education through a deliberate process. In many parts of

the world, several initiatives appear to have had little impact, despite

significant investment in the expectation that it will improve the quality

of teaching and learning thereby having positive effect on the student

attitude. It is now widely accepted that effective use of ICT cannot be

merely introducing teachers to the technology. Harland and Kinder

(1997) suggests the need for professional development initiative to

bring about planned change.

The rapid development of ICT and having easy access to

information through the e-mail and internet is one that is inextricably

linked with modern education. As ICT is a resource to learning,

science is primarily about methods of doing science and not ICT but

students should learn how to develop scientific skills and learn about

its role, function, application, preservation and processing using the

ICT. The science teacher is not an ICT specialist and is not expected

to teach ICT as his specialism. However, like every other teacher, they

are required to support student‟s use of ICT within their subject. The

more confident and competent the science teacher is with the ICT, the

more likely he will be able to incorporate the latest, most up-to-date

and accurate resource s of ICT into his teaching. Godfrey (2001)

states that to become confident, critical and creative user of ICT,

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Teachers must have access to professional development programs

that enables them to have multiple skills, both in the use of technology

and in task design (p.16). Therefore teachers need not only the ICT

skills but also the models of the best practice and knowledge to

support learning. They need to understand the rationale for integrating

ICT into learning environments and interpreting curriculum documents

to make decisions about designing, delivering, managing and

evaluating instruction.

Jegede (2004) p.66 says, continuing professional development must

be created to re-skill the potential teacher, re-motivate the interested

teacher, retain the dedicated teacher and retain the practicing

teacher. It is a known fact that computer which is the major tool used

in ICT especially in the classroom depends on the attitude towards

computers {Lawton and Gerschner, 1982). Several studies states that

teachers attitude, knowledge and skills in using computers are major

factors affecting their initial acceptance of computer technology and

their future behavior regarding computer usage (violato, mariniz and

Hunter, 1989; koohang, 1989). Office of technology assessment of

the united states congress (OTA) states that a number of teachers

with access to computers purposely avoid integrating technology into

their instruction because of their lack of training, while Bulkeley

commented that few teachers publicly criticize computer for fear of

appearing technologically backwards, but many ignore the machines

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after one or more frustrating experiences. These fast growing use of

new technologies in schools means that modes of professional

learning are opening for the teachers to equip themselves with all the

knowledge and technical no-how {application} needed to carry out

this operation. The use of these computers without providing teachers

with professional development time to learn equipment operations

and application will eventually make the teacher to be scape goat.

Several studies have been carried out on the assessment of attitude

of students towards computer and it was found that students who

received computer training were found to have a better understanding

in the computer assisted teaching than the students who have not

received any computer training. However, Johnson and Rising (1972)

reported that computer programming helps students to learn how to

solve problems systematically, carefully and in details, and helps to

transfer acquired skills to other similar situation. They further

explained that computer helps students to develop positive attitude,

desirable interest and appreciation.

Hoyle, (1983) said, the introduction of ICT into the educational

system has been hailed as a major catalyst of the long dreamed about

educational revolution, especially as ICT is designed to serve as a

major vehicle for improving the efficiency of the educational process (

Jones and Knezek, 1993). Offir-et-al. (1994) described the historical

development of ICT use in the educational process and indicated that

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since the introduction of ICT, the traditional open courseware

continuum succinctly and accurately depicts the progress made in the

use of ICT for learning and instruction. The traditional open continuum

provides an insight as to how ICT approaches evolved and developed

as educational media since the early 1960s. Offir et al (1993) reported

that in the early days of ICT use in the school classroom, traditional

computer assisted instruction (CAI) based on rigid and „closed‟ drill

and practice, was the dominant ICT approach. When poignant

questions were raised regarding the relative advantages and

effectiveness of drill and practice over more traditional and instruction

approaches, more flexible and open learning and instruction program

were developed and introduced into educational system. The use of

spreadsheet (Dreyfus et al, 1997) contributes to the enhancement of

learner independence and creativity, and provides students with

sophisticated graphical assistance that promotes the understanding of

complicated subject matter. According to (Appelberg, 1997) database

provides students with the opportunity of enriching their knowledge

and comprehension of subject matter by facilitating the ability to

conduct comprehensive searches for sources hitherto available only in

libraries and museums. However, the introduction of the use of

spreadsheets and databases in the educational process contributed to

the promotion of improved learning and instruction and increased

effectiveness in the educational process.

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Simulations which is sophisticated, progressive and improved

form of ICT are equally used as learning instruction. (Offir and katz,

1994),said, through simulations teachers are able to provide their

students with realistic models of subject matter as experienced in real

life situations thereby facilitating students understanding and mastery.

Thus, simulations enhances ICT mediated learning by providing an

added dimension that closes the gap between theoretical subject

matter and the application of knowledge to real life situations.

However, the steady evolution of ICT (radio, television, interactive

video, electronic mail, World Wide Web) has considerably influenced

the development of learning (Jones and Knezek, 1995). Passing and

Levin (2000) provided an in-depth analysis of multimedia packages

and stated that when using multimedia approaches in learning the

student does not only study the subject matter but also learn how to

deal with the synthetically programmed environment. The ease of use

and the uniformity of the multimedia interface have significant

implications for both teacher and student, since they provide a

platform for a higher level of motivation, concentration and

understanding of the content being studied. Multimedia of educational

packages attempt to provide a clear consistent and attractive ICT

platform, which contributes towards the ability of teachers and

students to reach excellence through user friendly instruction and

learning approaches.

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ICT use in education can be described as a major breakthrough

for teaching, learning and instruction. In a series of studies, a number

of researchers (Chandra et al, 1988; Karz and Offir, 1991; Offir and

Karz, 1990) as well as numerous others, testified to the existence of

psychological attitudes held by elementary and secondary school

teachers towards the use of ICT as an instructional approach.

Research studies have established that psychological attitudes such

as independence, creativity, tough-mindedness, sociability, risk taking,

stimulus and sensation seeking are key attitudes connected with

effective ICT use. Similar situations have been found with elementary

and secondary school (Dunn and Ridgway, 1991; Katz, 1993; Katz,

1995; Karz and Offir, 1990). Students who held attitudes such as

positive self-image, positive social-image, independence in learning

process, self-confidence in the learning, satisfaction with learning

internal locus of control, level of control of learning, creativity and

motivation for study were significantly more positive towards the use of

ICT than students who are not typified by the same traits.The use of

technology (ICT) to teach students in the classroom challenges the

students in learning to think, interact and solve problems, learn how to

learn with the aid of technology. Using ICT equally challenges the

students to use higher level thinking skills and become active seekers

rather than passive receivers of information.Using ICT enhances

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student‟s collaborative construction of meaning via different

perspective on shared experiences (Chan, Burtis and Bereiter, 1997).

ICT enables students to utilize modeling and visualization as powerful

means of bridging between experience and abstraction (Gordin and

Pea, 1995).

Dertouzes and Gates (1998) reported that in developed

countries, computers and telecommunications are on the verge of

reshaping the mission, objectives, content and processes of schooling.

This is the part of a larger change in those nations from loosely,

coupled, mature industrial economies to a profoundly interconnected,

knowledge based global market (Thurow, 1999). Since one of the

educational goal is to prepare students for work and citizenship the

introduction of ICT in schools (primary and secondary) are attempting

to change their policies, practices and curriculum to meet the

challenge of making student ready for a future quite different than the

immediate past.

Furthermore, culminating ICT as a teaching aid encourages

users to rely not only upon stored knowledge, but also on uniquely

human reasoning and problem solving skills. Anita Cox remarks that

this form of technology will become more widespread and visible in

response to education‟s increasing need to prepare students for work

in the information age. These challenges will in turn make the

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students to realize the importance of life long learning and become

motivated participants in the world and the workplace of the future.

Computer assisted Instruction (CAI) programs are being used in

schools as a supplement to traditional instruction. CAI is a spectrum

of computer technologies that assist the teaching and learning

process. Example of CAI applications include guided drills and

practice exercises, computer visualization of complex objects and

computer facilitated communication between students and teachers.

Several programs are used for courses (chemistry, physics,

geography, mathematics etc). These programs simulate the setting

of laboratory apparatus and also guides the students through the

steps required to complete the procedure (De la cuetara and Lamba,

1995). Some programs are equally used to increase the students

understanding of specific topics. Such as Animal pathfinders that

illustrates specific application of scientific method (Matray and Proulx,

1995).

Computer assisted instruction (CAI) enhances the learning rate

of students. The students learn faster with CAI than the conventional

instruction. Capper and Copple (1985) stated that CAI users

sometimes learn as much as 40% faster than those receiving the

teacher directed instruction. Using ICT in the teaching and learning

indicates that self esteem is enhanced and improves behavior. It

equally assists in exploring new opportunities for improving classroom

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practice. It makes lessons more stimulating, enjoyable, interactive and

gives room for appropriate selection of technologies. Students have a

positive attitude to learning as they retain their learning better

[Bialo and Sivin 1990;Maverech and Rich 1985; Robertson,et

al.1987,Rupe 1986]. Evarest .C. (2004) stated the following impact

that ICT has on the students

1. With online teaching /learning, students can work independently with

customized instruction and at his/her own place.

2. It increases the student‟s independence and motivation for self

directed study.

3. It increases the student‟s commitment to the learning risk.

4. It assists in exploring new opportunities for improving class room

practice.

Other potential benefits of ICT (using CAI) includes:

1. It also makes students to have more of internal locus of control or

sense of self efficiency.(Capper and Copper 1985,kinnaman 1990 and

Lovie1985).

2. Students have better attendance. Capper and copper, rupees 1986

and 1990 ISTE.

3. Students have higher rate of motivation or time on task (Bialo and

Sivin, 1990; Capper and Copper 1985).

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4. Students exhibit higher rate of cooperation or collaboration and

presocial behavior (Dickson, 1986,Maverech, Stern and Levita, 1987;

and Rupe, 1986).

Having seen the relevance of ICT in education, there is need for

continuing development of teachers to meet this enormous task of

technology. However, it has argued for creating a collaborative

professional learning environment for successful school improvement

and the first order of business for those seeking to enhance the

effectiveness of teaching and learning (Eastwood and Louis,

1992:215).The department for education and employment (DfEE,

2001) in their professional strategy suggests that effective

professional learning should be focused on classroom practice,

collaborative learning together, learning from the best and learning

from what works. By so doing, an ultimate change in practice will be

achieved. Education of teachers both at pre-service and in-service

through professional learning is recognized as being the major catalyst

for change (Finger, Russell, Jamieson-Procter and Russell, 2006).

Teacher on continuous training of ICT will build more confidence,

competence and develop appropriate skills in handling curriculum.

The Research on teacher‟s education has consistently stressed

the need to regularly provide opportunities for teachers to improve

their knowledge of the subject matter they teach and the teaching

skills they learned in the pre-service courses they attended. Recent

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research conducted by Tee Kay educational consultancy services

done on behalf of Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC),

NCCE, National Teachers Institute (NTI), Teachers Registration

Council (TRC) and world Bank revealed that their exist wide or major

gaps in the present NCE and degree curricular in the following areas;

computer education, small scale research technique, health and

environmental studies, resource management, skills for teaching

multigrade classes, National curriculum modules and sexuality

education. These gaps have urgent implication for pre-service training.

For those already trained needs to be followed up with in-service

continuing professional development programme to correct the

deficiencies and broaden their horizon. Fitzallen and Brown (2006)

carried out a research on the factors that impact on successful teacher

implementation of professional learning while incorporating the

Schulman‟s essential teacher knowledge (1982 a,b) which Identifies

three interconnecting categories.

a. Teacher knowledge (including knowledge of; content and curriculum,

teacher characteristic, ICT content, application of ICT in context).

b. Teacher dispositions (confidence, previous success, engagement in

reflection.

c. External factors (background, professional learning, time and access).

until these interlinking contents are considered the full promise of

digital content may not be realized. Professional learning is insufficient

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in itself for the adoption of ICT into teaching and professional practice,

teacher belief, confidence and expertise (Jamieson- proctor and

Finger, 2006; Phelps, Graham and Kerr, 2004; Albion, 1999). Having

access to appropriate equipment and infrastructure have been

identified to be an added advantage (Norris and Soloway, 2000).

With the present pace of dispensational development, ICT is

said to be a vital tool which teachers, students and lecturers must

equip themselves with, if they must move with the trend of global

awareness to enhance their teaching skills and improve their learning

abilities. Just as computer has played vital roles in many aspect of life

such as transportation, communication, national defense, material

production and scientific research, it has also become the fastest

reliable way of communication between teachers and students in our

education today. Using computers as an aided instruction is the best

way and the fastest object of instruction in today‟s world. Computers

also serve as a medium of teaching and learning methods to students

thereby bringing the close understanding between the two. Madu

(2002) reported that there is an increasing awareness of the potentials

for the use of ICT in education and the information technologies are

tools used to produce, store, process, disseminate; and exchange

information.

The need for continuing professional development (CPD) has the

following advantages
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1. To improve the job performance skills of the whole staff or group of

staffs

2. To improve the job performance skills of an individual teacher.

3. To extend the experience of an individual teacher for career

development or promotion.

4. To develop the professional knowledge and understanding of an

individual teacher.

5. To enable teachers to anticipate and prepare for change (Anna Crafts,

2000).

6. CPD may enable practitioners to widen their understanding of society,

especially information and communication technology (Bland ford,

2000). A lot of these training have been offered to Nigerian teachers

through workshops, seminars and conferences in ICT appreciation

and programming. This raises the need to assess the impact of CPD

of teachers on ICT Minna metropolis.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Education is generally acknowledged as one of the crucial allies of the

development process. Therefore educational policy makers and social

planners, in recognition of it‟s potentials for leveraging existing social

stratifications have placed a huge premium on the development of the

education sector. This is reflected in the emphatic resonance in the

National Policy on education (NPE, 2004) that „no nation can rise

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above the quality of its education systems‟. Based on this evident

truth, the national policy formulators recommend, as a priority, the

training of those responsible for faciliting the education of Nigerians in

the development planning process. On this, the National policy on

education unequivocally focuses attention to all aspects of education

planning, because of its teachers. This view was crystallized by lassa

(2000) and the roles that they play in the educative process to (basic)

education, particularly in third world countries. However, the challenge

of teacher training appears to be the most daunting challenge facing

the education system in general. Researchers have observed that out

of all the educational problems that beset the African continent today,

none is as persistent or compelling as the one relating to the training

of competent teachers who directly and indirectly is bound to influence

the quality and quantity of services provided by other teachers and

professors, as poor teachers tend to produce their own kind (Fafunwa

1967; Afe, 1999) in Afe 2000).

As new technologies transform classroom and laboratories,

academics will have to learn, change or improve their teaching styles

and every body will need some necessary ICT skills regardless of their

interest or their employment. Tools that incorporate ICT will undertake

many specialist tasks, learning to perform these task and using the

tools will be part of education.

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In Nigeria, teachers have been trained in several for a in ICT

teaching and learning especially in programmes organized by

UNESCO and UNICEF and government also occasionally organizes

ICT training for teachers of primary and secondary schools. As a result

of these, this study attempts to investigate the impact of continuing

professional development of teachers on the attitude of secondary

school students to learning science. It will also investigate the

difference between senior secondary school (SSS)1, SSS 2 and SSS

3 students attitude on the impact of CPD of teachers in ICT to learning

science. It will also do the same on variables such as age groups and

male and female students.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of the study is to find out the impact of continuing

professional development of teachers in information and

communication technology (computers) on secondary school student‟s

attitude to learning science. Specifically, this research is designed to

Investigate the difference between the impact of continuing

professional development of teachers on student‟s attitude to learning

science in relation to variables such as class level, age of students

and gender of students.

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1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What is the attitude of secondary school students on the impact

of continuing professional development of teachers in

information and communication Technology to learning science?

2. What are the differences between SSS1, SSS2 and SSS3

student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing professional

development of teachers in information and communication

Technology to learning science?

3. Are there differences between student‟s age groups (13-15years

and 16-18years) attitude on the impact of continuing


communication Technology to learning science?

4. What would be the difference between male and female

student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing professional

development of teachers in information and communication

Technology to learning science?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Ho.1 There is no significant difference between SSS1, SSS2

and SSS3 student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing


communication Technology to learning science.

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Ho.2 There is no significant difference between students age

groups(13-15years and 16-18years) attitude on the

impact of continuing professional development of teachers

in information and communication Technology to learning

science

Ho.3 There is no significant difference between male and

female student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing


communication Technology to learning science.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study would benefit the Federal ministry of Education, National

Teachers institute (NTI), National Board for Technical Education

(NBTE), Nigeria University commission (NUC), proprietors of private

schools, principals, teachers, lecturers, students and users of

information and communication technology facilities to designed

appropriate curricular materials for teaching and learning of science by

the use of ICT. This study will be a guide to curriculum developers of

science to develop and integrate ICT in to learning and interpreting

curriculum documents to make decisions about designing, delivering,

managing and evaluating instruction. Through continuing professional

development, teachers will also benefit in getting new and better ways

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of improving their methods and techniques of teaching. Students will

not only learn how to use computers, but effectively use it through the

internet to learn outside the class and beyond the given syllabus. They

will be able to access the web ICT for course information, such as

course outline, objectives, information about assessment and note for

the subject. This study will serve as a yardstick for Federal

Government, National Teachers Institute (NTI), National Board for

Technical education (NBTE), and Universal Basic Education (UBE) to

evaluate the achievement of the set national educational objectives.

1.7 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study will cover all the students in secondary schools in Minna

metropolis but specifically restricted to students from Himma, New

Horizon College, El-Amin International Schools and Hill-Top Model

Schools Minna. This is because the schools have computer

laboratories and have teachers that went on CPD in ICT.

1.8 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

There are limited literature about CPD of teachers in Nigeria, so

it limits the scope of generalization of the findings of this study.

Samples are drawn mostly from among private secondary school

students in Minna Niger State, because most of the public schools

have no computers and their teachers have received limited or no

CPD on ICT. .

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The importance of continuing professional development (CPD) cannot

be over –emphasized, especially in field as vital as education. Only by

continually arming oneself with the latest research techniques and

knowledge in the profession can one hope to stay effective in one‟s

career.

Any training programme is thus concerned with improved ways of

doing things of carrying out various activities in a professional manner.

The contribution of the ICT can be very useful tool for the development

of skills on it provides effective training programme which can be

attributed to its capacity for stimulation, model-building and interactive

adaptation. This usage applies not only to subjects like sciences but

also to various aspects of professional courses like engineering and

teacher training. The concept of life long education is associated with

a learning society, in the contemporary society; the end of formal

education does not mean the end of one‟s learning.

The University of Wisconsin –Madison in 1907 was the first academic

institution in the united state to offer an identifiable continuing

education program (schugurensky, Daniel (1907). In 1969, Empire

state college, a unit of the state university of New York, was also the
26

first institution in the united state to exclusively focus on providing

higher education to adult learners. While in 1976, the University of

Florida created its own division of continuing Education and most

courses were offered on evenings or weekends to accommodate the

schedule of working student‟s .Hopkins, Ainscow and west, 1994;

southworth 1994; Sammons, Hillman and mortimore, 1995; Green,

1999) reported that learning is a worth while process and not a static

or bounded process, however learning of education professionals

throughout ones career is essential. These researchers, commentators

and policy makers equally explained that teacher‟s development to

raising of pupils standards of achievement is a central policy.

Generally, continuing professional development is acknowledged to be

centrally important in maintaining and enhancing the quality of

teaching and learning in schools (craft 2000, Harland and Kinder 1997,

Harri 2002). The International research literature has consistently

shown that professional development is an essential component of

successful school level change and development (day, 1999b,

Hargreaves 1994).It has confirmed that where teachers are able to

access new ideas and to share experiences more readily, there are

greater potentials for schools and classroom improvement .Improving

schools, invest in the development of staff and create opportunities

for teachers to collaborate and to share best practice. Evidence also

suggests that attention to teacher learning can impact directly upon

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improvements in student learning and achievement. Teachers expand

and develop their own teaching repertoires and are clear in their

purposes, it is more likely that they will provide an increased range of

learning opportunities for students (Joyce et al,1999). The research

literature demonstrate that professional development can have a

positive impact on curriculum, pedagogy as well as teachers sense of

commitment and their relationship with students (Talbert and

McLaughlin 1994).

Several and resent research has reiterated that quality of professional

interaction, focus on staff development and the relentless pursuit of

improved teaching and learning are the characteristic of successful

school improvement ( Gray 2000; Harris 2000; Maden and Hillman J.

1996; OFSTED 2000). However, it also acknowledges the

importance‟s of teachers engaging in continuing career long

development that will meet their own personal and professional needs.

These needs will vary according to circumstances, personal and

professional histories and current dispositions. Matching appropriate

professional needs of the teacher and the selected activity is critically

important in ensuring that there is a positive impact at the school and

classroom level, where staff development improvement is paramount

(DfEE,P3) and offers a number of new initiatives to achieve particular

important goal. The richer mix of professional development

opportunities will allow teachers to focus upon their own learning,

28

career and promotion ambitions and to consider new responsibilities

within their own school content. This will lead to an improved and

enhanced sense of professionalism for teachers, plus an increased

motivation to stay within the profession.

2.1 DEFINITION OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT (CPD)

Debates around CPD have been numerous in recent years. Much of

the recent debate regarding CPD has been concerned with who and

what is being develop, by whom and most importantly, in whose

interest (Nofke, 1997, p.334). Wikipedia defines CPD as the skills and

knowledge attained for both personal development and career

advancement. It encompasses all types of facilitated learning

opportunities, ranging from college degrees to formal coursework,

conferences and informal learning opportunities in practice. Analytic

quality Glossary defines CPD as the study (that may accumulate to

whole programmes with awards) designed to upgrade knowledge and

skills of practitioners in the profession, while higher education funding

council for England (HEFCE, 2003), sees CPD as a range of short and

long training programmes, some of which have an option of

accreditation, which foster the development of employment related

knowledge, skills and understanding. Northeast Texas Network

consortium (NTNC, 2007), defines professional development as

courses offered to improve knowledge and skills in a specific

29

professional area, such as professional certification programs. Usually

not offered for academic credit.

David Hargreaves (1998), refined his definition about the nature of

CPD exploring the need for better professional knowledge which a

transition towards a knowledge society requires. He argues that

knowledge transmission in the past has failed partly because

University-based researchers were not very successful in either

knowledge creation or dissemination. He argues further that new

knowledge transmission models are required which involves a radical

reconceptualization of knowledge creation and its dissemination in

education, and the consequent restructuring that is necessary to

support it (p.1). To these new models, for Hargreaves is the

knowledge creating school. This would involve schools conducting a

knowledge audit, managing the processes of creating new

professional knowledge, validating the knowledge creating and

disseminating the created knowledge (p.2). The support and co-

ordination of schools and networks of school engaged in this new form

of knowledge creation and dissemination would require a rethinking of

the nature and role of CPD.

Welsh (2002) endorses that collaborative professional development

which could bridge research, policy and power at the same time

recognizing the potential for element of political conflict inherent in

restructuring teacher and school development. Similarly, Barber (1996)

30

argues that professional development should not be founded on

„narrowly conceived idea about in-service education for teachers but

the idea of the teacher as a life long learner who is a member of a

research- based profession. It has been suggested that continual

development is a relatively straight forward concept to accept. But, the

term „professional‟ is much more problematic (Bolam, p.280). Bolam

suggests that professional development is the process by which

teachers learn, enhance and use appropriate skills and knowledge and

the essence of such profession development for educators would

presumably be, therefore the learning of an independent, evidence-

informed and constructively critical approach to practice within a Public

framework of professional values and accountability, which are also

open to critical scrutiny. (Bolam, 2000, p.272).

In the current climate of professional issues in teacher‟s live, relating to

teacher workload, shortage and retention, it has been argued that the

focus of CPD should both be more structured and more teacher-led,

offering opportunities not just to minorities but to all irrespective of

factors such as geographical constraints and the size of the school.

Carol Adams, Chief Executive of the general Teachers council (GTC)

voiced her concerns, she said her biggest worry was about how to

ensure we have a proper, structured programme and avoid lots of little

pilots with only short term horizons and limited impact (quoted in

cordingley, 2001, p.82).

31

CPD is seen as part of the career development of all professionals

which is a shared responsibility with their employers because it serves

the interest of both. Day, (1999) says, professional development

consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and

planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit

to the individual, group or school which constitute through these, to the

quality of education in the classroom. It is a process by which, alone

and with others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment

as change agents to the moral purposes of teaching; and by which

they acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional

intelligence essential to good professional thinking, planning and

practice with children young people and colleagues throughout each

phase of their teaching lives (Day, 1996. b.). In February 2000, the

government published its consultation document on professional

development (Green paper, DfEE, 2001). The document argues that

good professional development requires time to reflect and set

objectives, recognition and commitment, opportunity, particularly for

work based learning. The documents equally argued that professional

development reflect three perspectives; Individual teacher‟s needs and

aspirations, the need of the school and national strategic priorities.

In a study conducted by National Foundation for educational Research

CPD. Teachers perspective (2000), stated that CPD is mostly needed

in the development of knowledge in the teachers own subject area; the

32

use of ICT and the internet in the curriculum; assessment; support for

pupils with special educational needs and leadership skills. Gatewood

and Conrad (1997) also explained at another workshop held at

implementing technology in the school curriculum that teachers‟

training is essential for computers to be effective teaching tool. They

reported that training opportunities enable teachers to build skills and

confidence and learn strategies to integrate computers into their

curriculum. Epstein (1993), identified four critical components of

training, practical experience, workshops, models and mentors and

supervisory follow-up.

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF CPD

CPD are undertaken by teachers beyond the point of initial training.

The following are the resource for undertaking professional

development.

1. To improve the job performance skills of the whole staff or group

of staff.

2. To improve the job performance skills of an individual teacher.

3. To extend the experience of an individual teacher for career

development or promotion.

4. To develop the professional knowledge and understanding of an

individual teacher.

5. To extend the personal or general education of an individual.

33

6. To make staff feel value.

7. To promote job satisfaction.

8. To develop an enhanced view of job.

9. To enable teachers to anticipate and prepare for change.

10. To clarify the whole or department policy ultimately all

teachers development will have as one of its aims the

improvement of pupils learning.

Blancd Ford (2000) emphasizes that professional development enable

practitioners to widen their understanding of society in particularly of

ICT.

2.3 THE CONCEPT OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

The concept of CPD is often left ill-defined, being in many cases

conflated with related concepts of in-service training and on the Job

learning. Both are more limited to CPD, as CPD encompasses a wide

variety of approaches and teaching and learning styles in a variety of

setting (inside or outside of the workplace) it is distinguishable from the

broader concept of learning. It is primarily related to people‟s

professional identities and roles and the goals of the organization they

are working for (Galloway, 2000).

34

The concept of lifelong education is based on post formal education

and it assumes learners to adults or near adults who can mange their

learning on their own.

In a paper presented by Dr. Ahmed Modibbo Mohammed of NTI on

creating opportunities for CPD, he said teacher‟s professional

development has two main phases: Initial preparation and continuing

professional development. He said initial teachers training takes the

form of full time residential pre-service programmes in teachers

colleges or universities. The initial training may also be available to

serving unqualified teachers through distance education or out of

school programmes during vacations or on release from schools for

extended periods of time. The pedagogical or professional

components of initial teacher training programmes can be either

conservative or concurrent with academic subjects. However, initial

teacher training has been criticized for its inadequacy in preparing

students for teaching. Learning to teach is a process that requires

continuing support and resources. Continuing professional

development of teachers comes from various sources and in various

forms; orienting teachers to curriculum or examination changes,

upgrading qualification levels, donor- funded projects, professional

teachers association in developing subject teaching e.g. STAN;

sometimes teachers unions, school based improvement initiatives or

individual teachers working to improve their qualifications, career

35

prospects or teaching skills. In our national situation where both

qualified and unqualified teachers are employed in schools, pre-

service and in-service education may go on simultaneously. Therefore,

structured and unstructured approaches of professional development

of teachers should be employed.

2.4 RATIONALE FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS

The pace at which new knowledge is being generated and old

knowledge is becoming outdated, demands that an individual should

continue to learn throughout one‟s life. ICT can be very effective for

facilitating lifelong education, both an tutor and as a tool.

The teacher is increasingly becoming an important factor in the

educative process. According to Sprinthall, Reiman and sprint

(1999:666), there is no such thing as a teacher-proof curriculum. They

pointed to the massive failure of national curriculum projects of the

1960‟s with the attendant “failed ideas, unused curriculum guide, and

tarnished hopes. By implication, teacher‟s characteristics, attitudes,

conception of self and intellectual and interpersonal dispositions in

large measure determine both the explicit and the hidden agenda of

the classroom. The formal curriculum is represented by the materials,

lesson plan and objectives, but the informal agenda is the atmosphere

36

or climate in the classroom as indicated by important teacher

characteristic.

The society expects great deal from their educational systems. New

goals are being continuously set such as life long learning, life skills

education, and competency in the use of ICT etc. As key agents in

these changes, teachers face high expectations, new roles which they

can get through CPD. One of the key elements of teacher quality, is

the provision of adequate opportunities for personal growth and

professional development.

Research on teacher‟s education has consistently stressed the need

to regularly provide opportunities for teachers to improve their

knowledge of the subject matter they teach and the teaching skills the

learned in the pre-service courses they attended. This is based on the

recognition of the fact that we live in a rapidly changing world such that

whatever knowledge and skills teachers acquired in their pre-service

training becomes stale very fast as new challenges and realities

emerge in the socio-economic and political environments.

2.5 MODEL OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Various model for teacher professional developments have emerged.

Most CPD models and practices emphasize formal CPD programmes

and activities. Spark, D and Loucks-Horsley, S (1989, fall) says there

are five models of staff development for teachers (Journal of staff

37

development, 10(4), 40-57). Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) who

are influential researchers suggests five models that are useful for

accomplishing the goals of staff development. These models includes

a. Individually Guided Development

b. Observation and Assessment

c. Involvement in a Development or improvement process.

d. Training

e. Inquiry

In Nigeria, three commonly used models are workshop models,

school-based teacher professional support and in-service training of

teachers (INSET).

The workshop model is the commonest form of CPD in Nigeria. It

entails drawing participants out of their school to a venue where they

are exposed by experts to a core of information and skills. The

workshop may be short or long term. The nature of skills and

processes to be acquired also vary.

The school-based teacher professional support and mentoring is a

recent alternative for in-service training of teachers. Pupils, teachers,

supervisors and facilitators are involved collaboratively in carrying out

a series of classroom/school-based activities that will help the teacher

to improve. The teachers get professional support from facilitators and

supervisors who serve as mentors. Activities may include direct

38

classroom support by the facilitators and supervisors, staff meeting

within the school and involving head teachers and the participating

teachers, demonstration lessons by teacher educators (mentors); visit

to the school by mentors etc. Erant, (1994) suggest that any

framework for promoting and facilitating professional learning should

take into account the following;

1. An appropriate combination of learning settings (on the Job, near

the Job, home, library, course).

2. For study consultation and reflection.

3. Availability of suitable learning resources.

4. People who are prepared (i.e. both willing and able) to give

appropriate support.

5. The learners own capacity to learn and take advantage of the

opportunities available.

In-service training of teachers (INSET) has relied upon teachers

participating in courses delivered by external providers either at the

school or at dedicated training centers.

39

2.6 EFFECTIVE CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPPMENT

A key factor of ensuring effective CPD is matching appropriate

professional development provision to particular professional needs. This

„fit‟ between the developmental needs of the teacher and the selected

activity, is critically important in ensuring that there is a positive impact at

the school and classroom level (Hopkins and Harris, 2001). Where staff

development are poorly conceptualized, insensitive to the concern of

individual participants and make little effort to relate learning experiences

to workplace conditions, they make little impact upon teachers or

pupils(Day,1999). There have been claims that CPD needs to be linked

to both individual and organizational goals, if both individual and

organization change are to be achieved (Jones and Fear, 1994).

2.7 FORMS OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Continuing professional opportunities ranges from a single workshop to a

semester long academic course, to service offered by a medley of

different professional development providers and varying widely with

respect to philosophy, content and format of the learning experiences

(Goggle). Other forms of CPD includes on the Job, in- house activities,

work shadowing or secondment (Michael Fullan).

Some examples of approaches to professional development includes:-

40

1. CASE STUDY METHOD: - The case method is a teaching approach

that consists in presenting the students with a case, putting them in

the role of a decision maker facing a problem (Hammond, 1976).

2. CONSULTATION: - To assist an individual or group of individuals to

clarify and address immediate concerns by following a systematic

problem solving process.

3. COACHING: - To enhance a person‟s competencies in a specific skill

area by providing a process of observation, reflection and action.

Flaherty (1999) presents coaching as a way of working with people

that leaves more competent and more fulfilled, so that they are more

able to contribute to their organizations. He described the product of

coaching as

 Long term excellent performance.

 Self correction.

 Self generation.

4. LESSON STUDY: - To solve practical dilemmas related to intervention

or instruction through participation with other professionals in

systematically examining practice.

5. MENTORING: - To promote an individual‟s awareness and refinement

of his or her own professional development by providing and

recommending structured opportunities for reflection and observation.

41

6. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE: - To assist individuals and their

organization to improve by offering resources and information,

supporting networking and change effort.

7. RELECTIVE SUPERVISION: - To support, develop and ultimately

evaluate the performance of employees through a process of inquiry

that encourages their understanding and articulation of their rationale

for their own practices.

In united State of America, many American State have professional

development requirement for school teachers. Arkansas teachers must

complete 60 hours of documented professional development activities

annually. Teachers in Idiana are required to earn 90 continuing

renewal units (CRUs) per year. In Massachusetts, teachers need 150

professional development points (PDPs) and in Georgia 10

professional learning units (PLUs) (Wikipedia). In Singapore, every

teacher is required to submit himself/herself to 100 hours of re-training

every year. In Scotland, every Thursday during term time, teachers

have an opportunity to take part in some live on line CPD in part of the

glowing Thursday programme.

2.8 CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA.

From time immemorial, the training of teachers has been an issue of

concern to researchers and lay members of society alike. Fafunwa

(1974) argued that teacher education continues to be the key to

42

educational development, In Nigeria and else where, for without

adequately trained teaching cadre, Nigeria cannot hope to expand her

educational facilities.

Till-date, the pre-service training and in-service professional

development of Nigerian teachers has not reflected the attention and

focus of these observers of our education system. Jegede (2002)

observed that the teacher training system in Nigeria has failed to

adhere to the provisions of the National policy on education that the

teacher education shall continue to take cognizance of changes in

methodology and in curriculum and that teachers shall be regularly

exposed to innovations in their professions. But, Okebukola (2002)

opined that in times past the teacher as well as his/her education did

enjoy some pride of place….. But teacher education in Nigeria and

indeed decades had been characterized by incessant instability, not

unconnected with attempts by practitioners in the field to better their

lot.

Afemikhe (2004) quoting taiwo (2002) added that teacher education

suffered some setbacks as greater emphasis was then laid on how to

teach rather than on what to teach.

However, it appears obvious that teachers need CPD and substantial

research seem to have confirmed this, not much importance seem to

be attached to continuing professional development of teachers in

Nigeria. For most teachers, training ends as soon as they graduated

43

and no opportunities exist for updating their knowledge and skills by

attending seminars, conferences, and workshops that will enhance

their knowledge and skills and ultimately classroom practice (Ahmed

Modibbo, 2006).

2.9 A MODEL OF ICT APPLICATION FOR TEACHERS’

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

The pace at which new knowledge is being generated and old

knowledge is becoming outdated, demands that an individual should

continue to learn throughout one‟s life. Information and

communications technologies can be very effective for facilitating

lifelong education, both as a tutor and as a tool. The concept of

lifelong education is based on post formal education and it assumes

learns to be adults or near adults who can manage their learning on

their own.

However, teacher training process in Nigeria is regarded as the

foundation of quality and relevance of education at all levels of the

levels of the national educational system of the initial teacher training

process and the CPD of Nigerian teachers is currently besortted by

number of challenges.

However, ICT is having a major impact across all curriculum areas

most especially in science subjects, easy worldwide communication

provides instant access to vast array of data, challenging assimilation

and assessment skills (Fowowe, 2006). Rapid communication plus

44

increased access to ICTs in the home, at work and in educational

establishment, learning becomes a truly lifelong activity- an activity in

which the pace technological change forces constant evaluation of

teaching process itself.

2.10 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

If students of today are to be prepared for the workplace of tomorrow,

computers must become an integral part of the current curriculum of

the school system.

2.10.1 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER

A computer can be defined as an electronic device or contrivance that

works under the control of stored instruction known as programs to

speedily accept data, process the inputted data into meaningful

information and then present its output in a well organized format

predefined by the user.

2.10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers are grouped into various classes depending on the

character they exhibit, the way they look or the way they are located.

Classification of computers by type: -

 Analogue Computers: Computers which does not compute

directly with discrete values (digits), rather, it measures quantity

45

in continuous flow e.g. current, temperature, voltage. Examples

of such computers are diagnosis, thermometer, analog watch.

 Digital Computers: These computers cannot measure quantity in

continuous flow. I.e. measures discrete values such as digit (0-

9), understands binary(0 or 1) letter of alphabets(a-z). Examples

are calculators, desktop, laptop, gaming computers.

Hybrid Computers: These computers have the features of the

analog and digital computers. It can measure quantity in

continuous flow as well as those in discrete values .e.g. the

system used in the electricity reading is hybrid.

2.10.3 CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE/CAPACITY

a. Mainframe Computers: these computers are bulky and stored in

control rooms with air-conditioning accommodation. They are

the largest form of computers. Examples IBM370, ICI 900.

Mainly used in research institute.

b. Mini Computers: These computers are smaller in size and can

perform arithmetic and logic operational functions, can process

task that do not require access to large masses of stored data.

Examples are Vax series, PDP-8 etc.

c. Micro Computes: these are the personal computers (Pc). They

are the smallest form of computers and uses micro processor as

46

its central processing unit (CPU). Examples are the Desktop,

Laptop, Notebook and palmtop.

d. Super Computers: These are faster than mainframe and are

designed for specialized application. E.g. monitoring and

controlling space flights and weather forecasting.

2.10.4 CLASSIFICATION BY NATURE OF LOCATION

Computers are also classified by the way they are located or located in

other devices. In this class, are the embedded computers.

Embedded Computers: Are computers that are located within other

machines to make them act like computers e.g. Speedometer.

2.10.5 CLASSIFICATION BY GENERATION

Computers passed through series and chains of development called

computer generations. The computer generations are:-

1. First generation Computers

2. Second generation Computers

3. Third generation Computers

4. Fourth generation Computers

5. Fifth generation Computers

6. Sixth generation Computers

47

2.10.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

The characteristics is that, it is a general purpose device which take

input from output devices like mouse, keyboard, bar code reader etc.

Some of these characteristics include

1. Speed- Computer works at very high speed.

2. Accuracy- Can do billions of calculation in a second
without error.

3. Storage- Can store data permanently.

4. Versatility- Can do various type of job at a time without

error.

5. Automation- It can run itself without human interaction. It

is an automatic machine because once it start on a job

they carry until job is finished.

6. Diligence- Unlike human being, a computer is free from

monotony, tiredness and lack of communication.

7. Reliability

8. Convenience

9. Flexibility

10. Power of Remembering

11. Larger Storage

48

12. No Feeling

Wikipedia (2009).

2.10.7 COMPUTER SYSTEM

The computer consists of vital components which are very essential for

information processing. The component are divided into two main

categories namely

i. Hardware.

ii. Software.

HARDWARE includes all equipment or physical devices used in

processing data and delivering information. It encompasses everything

that is tangible. I.e. any part that can be seen, touched and felt.

Hardware can belong to any unit such as the input unit (keyboard,

mouse, scanner), output unit (monitor or console, printer, speaker),

storage unit ( Hard disk, flash disk, Floppy disk, compact disk,

Diskette, memory card) processing unit (Ram, Rom) and other

peripheral parts such as power pack, plotter etc.

SOFTWARE: - These are the invisible or intangible portions of the

computer. A software is a set of instruction the computer programs

that are used to command the computer. Computer software are

divided into two categories

i. System Software.

49

ii. Application Software.

System Software is also referred to as operating system. This software

provides routines needed to allow application software‟s to interact

with the hardware. I.e. it interprets user‟s programme commands. This

operating system is a collection of programme modules that act as

interface between the computer hardware and the user.

Application Software:- These are programmes created specifically to

meet the user‟s need. The ones developed by the manufacturer are

called Generalized Application Software, while the one developed by

the user are called user program or user-define software. Examples of

Generalized Applications packages are word processing software‟s,

spreadsheet software, Graphics etc.

Pelgrum and law (2003) state that near the end of the 1980s, the term

computer was replaced by Information Technology (IT). Information

Technology according to Ayo,(2001) is the use of computer system

and telecommunication equipment in information handling. He

identifies three basic component of information technology. These

components include

a. Electronic processing using the computer.

b. Transmission of information using telecommunication

equipment.

50

c. Dissemination of information in multimedia. Oketunji, (1999)

quotes Marghalana M.A as being of the view that information

technology encompasses the notion of application of

technologies to information handling. This includes generation,

storage, processing, retrieval, dissemination etc.

However, Cole (1956) supplied a useful definition which was given by

the Department of Trade and Industry in Britain, which states that

information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and

dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numeric information by a

micro-electronic based combination of computing and

telecommunication. Some of the IT facilities are computers of various

types, scanners, printers, servers, word processors, photocopiers etc

and other devices for information acquisition and dissemination such

as teleconferencing/video conferencing, Networks, tele-text, facsimile,

internet, e-mail and voice mail etc. These signify a shift of focus from

computer technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information.

This was followed by the introduction of the term ICT (information and

communication technology) around 1992, when e-mail started to

become available to the general public (Pelgrum, w.J law N, 2003).

Literature search revealed quite a number of studies globally on the

impact of ICT on teaching, learning and other research activities.

However, Itegboye (2002) describes ICT as the application of

computers, telecommunication equipment to process, store, retrieve

51

and send information of all kinds. She added that information is power

and technology is the bedrock of development of any nation. Adeya,

(2002) describes ICT as electronic means of capturing, processing,

storing and disseminating information. According to another definition

by Adeya, 2002, ICTs are embedded in networks and services that

affect the local and global accumulation and flowing of public and

private knowledge. But according to united Nation report (1999) say

that ICT covers internet services provision, telecommunication

equipment and services, information technology equipment and

services, media and broadcasting, libraries and documentation

centres, commercial information providers, Network-based information

services and other related information and communication activities.

UNESCO (2002) studies on the stages of teaching and learning using

ICT facilities, the report draw out some broad stages in the way

student and teacher learn about and gain confidence in the use of ICT.

These stages are discovering, learning how, understanding how and

when, and specializing in the use of ICT tools. It described discovering

stage as a link to the emerging approach in the ICT development,

which the impact of teaching, learning and research using ICT has not

been quantified and the implication is that technology is still not fully

explored and hence no research in the classroom is been done.

Learning how to use ICT tools, in this stage where learners and

teachers begin to make use of ICT tools in different disciplines and this

52

is linked to the applying approach in the ICT development that in most

development. This study therefore discovered that in most developing

countries, tertiary institutions are generally at this stage, common

application of ICT includes editorial work and internet. Actual research

on how students learn and use ICT tools has just begun in most

institutions. The third stage, understanding how and when to use ICT

tools to achieve particular purposes. The ability to recognize situation

where ICT will be helpful choosing the most appropriate tool for a

particular task, and using these tools in combination to solve real

problems. In study, an example was cited using Excel by students to

plot graphs of statistical data generated from a classroom exercise.

This stage is linked with infusing and transforming approaches in the

ICT development. The last stage in the study is specializing in the use

of ICT tools, here students study ICT as a subject to become

professional as opposed to the general knowledge in the use of ICT

where courses are supposed to be handled together with basic ICT

tools associated with it. The above four stages are closely related and

do provide a framework or a model for an ICT curriculum. Teachers

expertise is finely tuned to the teaching and learning setting, what is

flexing and responding to the introduction of digital technologies. They

further lamented that integration of ICT with teaching and learning

activities support knowledge building and consolidation and application

to new contexts. Although ICT can be adapted to different needs, its

53

exploitation is limited by forceful constraints‟. These include

resourcing, technical and classroom management issues. They

concluded that success relies on exploiting dynamic visual

representations as a reference point in order to exchange ideas,

negotiate meanings, build knowledge, and restructure problems. A

supportive classroom culture is characterized by structured activities

and interactions which promote teachers insights into teachers

thinking and vice versa. These incorporate proactive and responsive

guidance that continually assesses and accommodates learners

various and shifting needs.

In concrete terms, ICT enhances teaching and learning through its

dynamic, interactive, flexible and engaging content. It provides real

opportunities for individualized instruction. Further more, the

application of ICT enhances and facilitates teachers pedagogical

activities. For instance, e-learning is one most common means of

using ICT to provide education to students both on and off campus by

means of on-line teaching offered via web based system (Yusuf, 2005;

Mutula, 2003). Abifarin, (2003) asserted that the Nigeria educational

system cannot afford to ignore the potentials of ICT for its continued

survival, because no other delivering model or medium can cope with

demand for up-to-date information and ideas across the world. The up-

to-date training facilities depend to a very large extent on the ability to

harness ICT as a source of knowledge and man power development.

54

However, according to Finger, Russell, Jamieson Proctor and Russell,

2006, p.17) says without adequate infrastructure and technical support

meaningful ICT learning experiences by students might not happen at

all. Similarly, training and professional development for teacher in ICT

use needs to be effective.

2.10.8 ELEMENTS OF ICT

Hess, Leal (2001), reported that four elements of ICT are

distinguished.

a. Equipment or hardware: physical devices, such as personal

computers and mobile phones.

b. Content/data/information/subject matter: Thing to be learned

and to be learned about.

c. Connectivity: communication infrastructures which enable

data/content to be passed between and shared by the users of

hardware devices.

d. Software which control and functions and operation of the

hardware and communications and allow data/content to be

manipulated by users of hardware devices. Software is

increasingly built into (embedded in) hardware but may also be

passed between devices (just as though it is data) and then

used by them to allow new or better functionality.

55

This is of course a much simplified picture: for other purposes it is

useful to distinguish many more separate categories. Educational

software is any combination of content and software used for

educational purposes. For each of the four categories, there is or

maybe both a general and an application (education) specific

subcategory, with overlaps between them of these categories, content

is the most important, the rest are means of improving its effectiveness

and delivering. ICT provides many different modes of and tools for

information processing, including calculation, text/word processing,

spreadsheets, Databases, graphics, animation, sound, communication

(e-mail), dissemination, information retrieval and virtual reality.

2.10.9 USES OF COMPUTERS

The use of computer and its application areas are

a) E-Marketing: This can simply be defined as achieving marketing

objectives through use of electronic communications technology.

It involves moving elements of marketing strategies and

activities to a computerized networked environment such as the

internet. It is the strategic process of creating, distributing,

promoting and pricing goods and services to a target market

over the internet or through digital tools.

b) E-Banking: Internet banking or online banking is a term used for

performing transactions, payments etc over the internet through

56

a bank‟s secure website. Example is the automated money

transfer (ATM).

c) Health Service: The automatic monitoring of patient records,

diagnosis and therapy administration has been made easy with

the use of computers. The auto Doctors, magnetic resonance

scanners and computerized axial tomography are inventions

brought about by the use of computers.

d) E-Business: Electronic business is conducting business on the

internet. It includes buying, selling, servicing customers and

collaborating with business partners via internet.

e) E-Entertainment/Re-creation: The internet offers host of

entertainment such as games, music, sports. The presence of

film industry on the internet along side with various

entertainment and News websites makes the internet an avenue

for catching fun.

f) Education: Computers can be used in education in the following

ways

i. On-line Education: This term encompasses any kind of

learning that is done exclusively online. At times the

learning is through free self study website e.g. WEBCT.

ii. Application Packages: Computer aided instruction (CAI)

and computer aided learning (CAL) has tremendously

57

reduced the work load of teachers and increased students

successes.

Internet resources that are used in education includes

i. E-Mails (Electronic mail): This is the exchange of electronic

messages and computer files between computers that are

connected to the internet or other computer network. E-mail can

be used by students to communicate with lecturers, teachers

and colleagues.

ii. Virtual Library: This is one of the best ways of getting library

information via the internet.

iii. World Wide Web (www): This is a hypermedia based system for

browsing internet sites. It is called the web because it is made

up of many sites linked together; students can travel from one

site to another by clicking on hyperlinks.

iv. Usenet: This is the discussion groups on the internet that talks

about specific topics. A newsgroup is a repository, usually within

the Usenet system where students can post educational topics

for discussion.

v. File Transfer: This is the transfer of files, software‟s etc between

a host and remote computers.

vi. Data Conferencing: This is a communication session in which

two or more participants are sharing computer based data in

real time. Any participants keyboard/mouse can control screens

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of other participants. Voice mail or voice communication can be

out of band using a totally separate voice connected or in- band

using a simultaneous voice and data technology.

vii. Video Conferencing: It involves the using of a computer, video

camera and network such as internet to conduct a live

conference between two or more people (students and

lecturers/teacher). Video Conferencing is an extremely useful

method of communication because it saves people the time and

expense of travel and can often accomplish many of the things a

physical meeting can. A two person video conference is known

as point to point, while more than two people involved in a

session is a multipoint conference.

viii. Teleconferencing/Web cast: This is the use of electronic

channels to facilitate real time communication among groups of

people at two or more locations. Teleconferencing is a generic

term that refers to a variety of technologies and application

including audio-conferencing, audio graphic, video-conferencing,

data conferencing, business, television and distance learning or

distance education.

ix. Gopher: Gopher is a distributed document search and retrieval

system. It takes a request for information and then scans the

internet for it.

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2.11 ICT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN UK

The use of ICT in secondary school has a recent but relatively fast

moving history in the school curriculum in the UK. In the early to

middle 1960s, computers were rarely seen in the schools and few

teachers had any formal training. With the increased availability of

computers at the end of the 1970s, computer studies examinations

courses became popular and were taught in specialist computer rooms

(DES, 1990s). Boyd Barrett (1991) argued that the interest was

restricted to male teachers of science and mathematics departments.

It was with the introduction of microcomputers in the 1980s, that it

became possible to introduce computers into individual classrooms to

support the curriculum. However, it was the introduction of national

curriculum in 1990 that established a need for computers in the school

curriculum. Pupils/students were required to use computers for their

lessons to communicate and handle information, design, develops,

explore and explore models of real or imaginary situations and

measure and control physical variables and movement (DES, 1990b).

The latest National curriculum document for design and technology (D

& T) highlights the compulsory nature of computer- aided design and

manufacture (CAD/CAM) in secondary schools as an integral part of

designing and making (DFEE, QCA, 1999). Similarly, the postgraduate

certificate of education (PGCE) students to gain qualified teachers

status (QTS) must demonstrate by the end of their courses that they

60

have achieved all the „Standard‟ required on courses of initial teacher

training (DFEE,1998). These include knowledge and understanding of,

and competence with ICT in the subject to enable them to decide

when the use of ICT is appropriate and effective to achieve their

teaching objectives.

2.12 ICT AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary education is concerned with acquiring additional

knowledge, behavioral and other skills. Possession of basic

knowledge, skills and attitudes will be assumed. Presentation of the

intellectual content will be ICT-based and largely under the control of

the pupil/student. It will involve studying subjects and skills in greater

depth. The aim will be to enable each learner to maximize their

individual potential in individual subjects. It will be concerned with

building on those, so that learners acquire further knowledge and skills

according to their aptitudes, needs and preferences. Posen and

Michelle (1995).

Education and training are fundamental to achieving priorities for the

Nigerian economy in the twenty-first century. All Nigerians need to be

“enterprising, innovative, adaptable and socially responsible

participants in the information economy‟‟ and Nigeria will be at a

serious disadvantage in the global knowledge economy if it fails to

produce workers, professionals and managers. With the skills to work

61

in the online environment (National Office of the Information Economy,

1999, p.11). These national views also are reflected in the Nigerian

Curriculum framework.

To meet this challenge, the Nigeria government has invested on

information technology in schools. However, increased spending on

ICT in schools does not necessarily quarantee improved teaching and

learning environments and improved student‟s outcomes. [Centre for

Research on information technology and organization, 1999, EDNA,

1999a; While, 1999]. Education has a poor history of successfully

meeting the challengers of shifts in information technology (Trinidad,

1998). There has been far too little research into the implementation

and educational benefits of technology rich school learning

environments. Therefore, this research as part of the larger study is

investigating on the impact of continuing professional development of

teachers in ICT on the secondary school students, as well as the

attitudes of students to using ICT in learning food science. Preston

(1998) describes some of the information technology (IT) products that

would be used in the classroom of the future to include electronic

whiteboards, which teachers can use to write on the board in the

conventional method while integrating with the computer at the same

time; delivery of lesson notes in the form of interactive presentations,

which will be projected onto the whiteboard incorporating video

animation and sound; and liquid crystal display LCD projectors, which

62

will be used in a similar way to project video images and live television

programmes. The white board helps students to develop cognitive

skills, enables ICT use to be more integrated into classroom, allow text

and images to be moved around the board and/ or changed, and

finally allows work to be saved or to be printed out (Gage, 2006).

Similarly, detachable LCD displays from laptop computers will be used

to give presentations using an overhead projector. To achieve the

effective use of these tools, scholars must learn or improve on the use

of the new set of skills associated them, such as strategies to search

for relevant materials skills in evaluating the quality of documents

found, knowledge of such web design skill in using discussion forum

and chat rooms and a basic understanding of how to send e-mail

attachment(Lacey, 1999 quoted in Ojedokun and Owolabi 2003).The

classroom of the future should have a mobile furniture i.e. tables with

mounted wheels and rolling chairs. This mobility of furniture allows the

students to see the fixed interactive white board and also makes

possible to change direction of teaching and gives students more

surface to work in groups. This classroom of the future promotes not

only a sense of well being and produces a home-like atmosphere and

its interior is technically well equipped and designed for effective

teaching. Jervis and Steeg (2000) discussed the use of internet in

secondary schools in British schools to support teaching and learning.

63

2.13 TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES AND ICT

People have preferred styles of learning. For example, some people

prefer to read or listen while others like a highly visual approach.

Research [Carbo, 1986; campell and Campbell, 1999] continues to

show what when learners are able to use their own particular styles of

learning and processing information on their motivation, initiative and

result improve.

People have preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining

information (schunk, 2000) Not synonymous with academic ability, this

preference is called learning or cognitive styles. The term learning

styles or cognitive style are often used interchangeable (James and

Garduer, 1995). Gregore (1982a) defines learning styles as the way

that people perceive, sort, absorb, process and retain information.

Within and Good enough (1981) elaborated that cognitive styles are

individual differences in how people process information. Similarly,

James and Garduer (1995) defined learning style as “the ways

individual learners react to overall learning environment” (p.19). While

Dunn and Dunn (1993) added that both biological and environment

characteristics contribute to a student‟s learning style.

Teacher centered learning approaches often our passive reception of

knowledge, whereas learner centered approaches encourage a

process of active inquiry. Learners are best motivated to learn when

64

they can take responsibility for their own learning as it is an active

process.

Interactive technologies encourage active learning and with the

increased popularity of computers, today‟s students are learning with

technology, as opposed to learning about technology. Schweizer,

1999; Nelson, 2001) show, teachers can provide powerful learning

opportunities through ICT when students are responsible for their own

learning and are active learners defining their learning needs; finding

information on their own knowledge base and communicating their

discoveries. These ICT (computers) need to be carefully designed,

giving thought to the different learning styles of students and the way

in which students learning. In the information age, the implication of a

move from teacher- centered to learner centered education are that it

is important for students to be able to analyze and synthesize

enormous amount of information, thus determining what should be

learned, how it will be learned and when it will be learned.

The specific ICT competencies refer to the special skills a teacher

trainee acquires in other to enhance the quality of the teaching and

learning that takes place in the school. The special skills cannot be

acquired without the general abilities, and the general abilities are not

of much benefit if the teacher does not possess specific skills for

applying ICTs in his teaching activities. Studies in ICT development in

both developed and developing countries identify at least four broad

65

approaches through which ICTs could be adopted for teacher training

and professional development.

EMERGING APPLYING INFUSING TRANSFORMING

Model depicting a continuum of approaches to ICT application for

teacher training and development

The continuum model above indicates that the skills of teacher trainee

flow from the emerging to the applying into the infusing and then

culminates in the transforming processes of the educative activities

which takes place in schools. The Emerging approach is the first stage

of ICTs skills development in teachers, here the focus is on

appreciation of technical functions, components and general uses of

ICTs, especially for education and training. This approach tends to be

theoretical and the practical components involves the personal use of

ICT such as the use of word processing to prepare worksheets,

locating information on CD-ROMs or on the internet, or communicating

with friends and family via e-mail. The emphasis here is on training of

teachers in a range of tools and applications, and increasing teachers‟

awareness of the opportunities for applying ICT to their teaching in the

future.

66

The next level of the continuum model emphasizes the application of

ICTs to teachers‟ subject areas. In the applying approach, teachers

use ICT for professional purposes, focusing on improving their subject

teaching especially in science subject (Physics, Chemistry,

Mathematics, Biology, Geography etc) in order to enrich how they

teach with a range of ICT applications. This approach often involves

teachers in integrating ICT to teach specific subject skills and

knowledge; beginning to change their methodology in the classroom;

and support their training and professional development. The infusing

approach involves the inclusion of ICT in all aspects of teacher‟s

professional lives in such ways as to improve student learning and the

management of learning processes. The approach supports active and

creative teachers who are able to stimulate and manage the learning

of students, integrating a range of preferred learning styles and uses

of ICT in achieving their goals. The infusing approaches other subjects

into project based curricula.

Transforming teaching through ICTs involves teachers and other

support staff in the school system regarding ICT as a natural part of

everyday life of the system that they begin to look at the processes of

teaching and learning science in new ways. The emphasis changes

from a teacher-centric to a learner-centric system where the teachers

is seen as a „guide by the side, rather than sage on the stage‟, helping

students as the facilitator of their learning experiences to construct

67

new learning paradigms out of the various offerings that the school

makes available to them. This shift in emphasis in learners need also

calls for new training needs on the part of the teachers, where they

would be imbued with such components of knowledge that prepares

them to annex the potentials of ICTs in sourcing and disseminating

information to their students.

2.14 TEACHER TRAINING IN NIGERIA

The initial teacher training process and the continuing professional

development of Nigerian teachers is currently besotted by a number of

changes. These are directly connected with the incessant modification

of the planning policies several times before such policies have been

appropriately implemented in its original form. These problems have

been further accentuated by the parlous state of economic

development, which has made „teaching‟ a less desirable profession

for many youth.

The NPE (1977, revised 1998, 2005) provided the objectives of

teacher education in Nigeria as follows:

 To provide highly motivated, conscience and efficient classroom

teachers;

 To encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers;

 To help teachers commitment to the teaching profession.

68

However, many researchers have noted that these „lofty‟ objectives

have scarcely been met (Okebukola, 2002; Isyaku, 2002; Ukeje, 2002

& Afemikhe, 2004). For instance, the same policy document provided

that the Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE) shall be the minimum

qualification of teachers in any level of education system (NPE, 1997,

revised 1998, 2005; p.33), but the reality is completely at variance with

this provision. According to the Situations and policy Analysis jointly

published by the UNICEF and the Federal Government of Nigeria

(1993) the Teachers Grade II certificate is still found among the

qualification of teachers in Nigerian primary schools, in many states in

Nigeria. Also, with the launching of the Universal Basic Education

(UBE) scheme in 1999, when it was found that there exists an

inadequacy in the number of available teachers for the compulsory

basic education scheme for Nigerian school children.

The National Teachers Institute (NTI) was required to introduce the

Pivotal Teachers Training Programme (PTTP) to train a cadre of

teachers for qualification much lower than the NCE and the teachers

Grade II Certificate to cater for the shortage in supply of primary

school teacher needed to met the demands of the demands of the

UBE scheme (NTI, 2004; Tahir, 2001). Amidst this obvious inadequacy

of teacher in sufficient number and quality, Ukeje (2002) echoed the

fact that teachers are the foundation of quality in the school; it is upon

their number, their quality, their effectiveness, their efficiency, and their

69

education, that depend the quality of the educative process and the

education system.

Whatever is needed in the society is always made a central part of

the school curriculum, so that learners can jointly and severally proffer

potent and innovative solutions to social challenges. But this can only

be meaningful and successful if we have the right caliber of teachers.

All existing teacher education programmes in Nigeria, Diploma in

Education, Bachelor of Education, postgraduate Diploma in Technical

education and the Nigeria Certificate in Education, all have three major

components (Afemikhe, 2004).

These are, to wit, the Foundations of education (Historical,

Psychological, Sociological, Philosophical and Religious Foundations);

Pedagogy courses (classroom Management, Curriculum Design &

Development, Counseling, Design & Construction of Methodology,

Measurement & Evaluation, Counseling, Design & Construction of

Instructional Aids, etc.); and teaching Subjects under the broad

categorizations-science, arts, social sciences. In addition, there is

usually a teaching practice exercise whose duration varies across

institutions. This is what the teacher training model looks like in a

Nigerian Teaching education institution. This model is rather restrictive

in the sense that it fails to take into cognizance the burgeoning

possibilities of information and communication technologies in the

teacher production process. Compounding the issues related to

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