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Project: Ghana Emergency Medicine Collaborative
Document Title: Recognition and Management of Shock (2012)
Author(s): Jim Holliman, M.D., Uniformed Services University
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Recognition and
Management
of Shock
Jim Holliman, M.D., F.A.C.E.P.
Program Manager, Afghanistan Health Care Sector
Reconstruction Project
Center for Disaster and Humanitarian Assistance
Medicine
Professor of Military and Emergency Medicine
Uniformed Services University
Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.A.

3
Shock : Lecture Objectives
•  Define shock
•  Recognize stages or degrees of shock
•  Know appropriate management for each
stage

4
Shock
•  Definitions :
•  A state of inadequate tissue
oxygenation & organ perfusion
•  Situation when the circulation is
inadequate for metabolic needs

5
Principles of Shock Recognition
and Management
•  Patients in shock may only exhibit
subtle signs
•  Identifying the cause is usually less
important than starting treatment
•  Goal is to restore perfusion and correct
the shock state
•  Frequent reassessment of response to
treatment is important

6
The Body's Mechanisms to Try
to Compensate for Shock
•  Increase cardiac output : tachycardia
•  Increase oxygen supply : tachypnea
•  Release of vasoactive mediators
•  Nausea
•  Peripheral vasoconstriction
• 
Cool, clammy skin, increased diastolic pressure,
decreased urine output
•  Note : "Compensated" shock is still dangerous and
needs treatment ; pediatric patients may maintain a
partially compensated shock and then suddenly
catastrophically deteriorate
7
Types of Shock
•  Hemorrhagic : most common in trauma patients
•  Hypovolemic (emesis, diarrhea, etc.)
•  "Obstructive"
•  Pulmonary embolus, cardiac tamponade, tension
pneumothorax

•  Cardiogenic
•  Acute myocardial infarction, Myocardial contusion

•  Neurogenic
•  Septic
•  Anaphylactic
8
Principle of Treatment for Shock
•  In the trauma patient in shock : always
treat for hemorrhagic shock first

9
General Symptoms of Shock
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Weakness
Dizziness
Lightheadedness
Nausea
Sense of impending doom

10
General Signs of Shock
•  Decreased mental status or confusion
•  Cool, clammy, or grey or ashen color
skin
•  Diaphoresis
•  Tachycardia
•  Tachypnea
•  Hypotension
•  Oliguria

11
Hemorrhagic Shock
•  Hemorrhage definition :
•  Acute loss of circulating blood ; can be
internal and / or external

•  Normal body blood volume
•  Adults : 7 % of ideal body weight
• 
5 liters in 70 kg adult
•  Children : 8 % of ideal body weight
• 
80 ml/kg

12
The Four Stages of Hemorrhagic
Shock
•  Stage 1 hemorrhage : 0 to 15 % of total
blood volume (TBV)
•  Stage 2 hemorrhage : 15 to 30 % of TBV
•  Stage 3 hemorrhage : 30 to 40 % of TBV
•  Stage 4 hemorrhage : > 40 % of TBV

13
Comparison of the Four Stages
of Hemorrhagic Shock
Blood % TBV CNS
Stage lost
lost SX
(cc)

Systolic
BP

Dias- Resps.
tolic
BP

Pulse Urine

Output
(ml/hr)

<750

0 to 15 Slightly Normal. Normal. 14 to 20 <100
15 to 30 Mildly

2

750 1500

30 to 40 Confu-

3

15002000

anxious

1

>2000

4

anxious

sed,
anxious

>40

Lethargic or
unconc.

Normal.

>30

Treatment
Crystalloid

20 to 30 >100

20 to 30 Crystal-

30 to 40 >120

5 to 15 Crystal-

>40

>140

loid, may
need
blood

loid &
blood

Negligible

Rapid
fluids,
blood,
surgery
14
Stage 1 Hemorrhage
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Blood lost : < 750 cc
% TBV lost : 0 to 15
CNS Symptoms : Slightly anxious
Systolic BP : Normal
Diastolic BP : Normal
Respirations : 14 to 20
Pulse : < 100
Urine Output (ml/ hr) : >
30
Treatment : crystalloid ( 3 to 1 ratio) IV
15
Stage 2 Hemorrhage
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Blood lost : 750 to 1500 cc
% TBV lost : 15 to 30
CNS Symptoms : mildly anxious
Systolic BP : normal
Diastolic BP : increased
Respirations : 20 to 30
Pulse : > 100
Urine output : 20 to 30 cc/hr
Treatment : crystalloid, may need blood
16
Stage 3 Hemorrhage
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Blood lost : 1500 to 2000 cc
% TBV lost : 30 to 40
CNS symptoms : confused, anxious
Systolic BP :
Diastolic BP :
Respirations : 30 to 40
Pulse : > 120
Urine output : 5 to 15 cc/hr
Treatment : crystalloid and blood
17
Stage 4 Hemorrhage
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Blood lost : > 2000 cc
% TBV lost : > 40
CNS symptoms : lethargic or unconscious
Systolic BP :
Diastolic BP :
Respirations : > 40
Pulse : > 140
Urine output : negligible
Treatment : rapid fluids, blood, surgery
18
Variations in Manifestations of
the Four Stages of Shock
•  Patients do not always show the progression of
signs & sx listed on the prior 4 slides with
progression of the degree or severity of shock
•  Some adults, especially young adults, may have
normal pulse rates or even bradycardia with
stage 2 or 3 shock
•  Pediatric patients may remain in "compensated"
shock until almost preterminal stage 4 shock

19
Sequence of Assessment of the
Patient in Shock
•  Airway
•  Breathing
•  Oxygenate
•  Ventilate

•  Circulation
•  Stop external hemorrhage with direct pressure
•  Start IV fluid resuscitation
•  Assess for "obstructive shock"
• 
Tension pneumothorax : needle thoracostomy
• 
Cardiac tamponade : pericardiocentesis
20
Rapid Fluid Resuscitation for Shock
•  Draw blood for type and cross-match from the needlestick
for the IV line
•  Place large bore (> 18 gauge) IV if possible
•  Place 2 IV lines if Stage 3 or 4 shock
•  Initially run fluid in "wide-open"
•  Use large drip chamber IV tubing
•  May need pressure bags on the IV bags
•  Usually use Lactated Ringers
• 
Choose normal saline if patient may be hyperkalemic
• 
Normal saline also preferred for same IV line to be
used for blood transfusion
•  Do not use vasopressors ; treat with fluids
21
Alternative Vascular Access Sites
for Shock Treatment
•  Peripheral vein in upper extremity ; Preferred in most patients
•  Avoid if possible proximal limb fracture
•  Central veins
•  Subclavian or internal jugular vein ; accessible even in Stage
4 shock
•  Access can cause pneumothorax (always get CXR to
check)
•  Femoral vein ; easy and safer to place
•  If abdominal injury present, fluid may extravasate in
abdomen
•  Intraosseous line : may be easiest and even preferred initial
route in children ; can also be tried in adults
22
•  Intraperitoneal
Other Resuscitative Procedures
for Severe Shock
•  Blood transfusion
•  Type - O-negative (if needed immediately)
•  Type - specific (if needed in < 15 minutes)
•  Fully crossmatched

•  Emergent left thoracotomy, pericardiotomy,
aortic clamping
•  Autotransfusion
•  Most useful for blood output from chest tubes

23
Indications for Emergent Transfusion
With O-Negative Blood
•  No palpable blood pressure at arrival
•  Multiple simultaneous patients requiring
emergent transfusion
•  Rapid deterioration or sudden large volume
external blood loss and type specific blood
not immediately available

24
Indications for Transfusion With Type-Specific
or Fully Crossmatched Blood

•  Type-specific : (usually takes 5 to 10
minutes to obtain from blood bank)
•  Transfusion emergent but can wait 10
minutes but not 60 minutes

•  Fully crossmatched : (takes 45 to 60
minutes)
•  Patient stable enough that transfusion can be
delayed 45 to 60 minutes until blood is ready

25
Non-Hemorrhagic Types of Shock
•  Hypovolemic (non-hemorrhagic) shock
•  Due to vomiting , diarrhea, "third spacing" of
fluid
•  Treat with IV Lactated Ringers or saline
•  Does not need blood transfusion

•  Anaphylactic shock
•  Due to allergic reaction with release of
vasoactive mediators which can cause airway
edema & vasodilatation
•  Treat with IV fluids & epinephrine
26
Non-Hemorrhagic Types of
Shock (cont.)
•  Septic Shock
•  Can be a late or delayed complication
•  Patient may have fever or hypothermia
•  Treat with IV fluids ; sometimes need
secondary treatment with vasopressors
•  Finding and directly treating the source of
the sepsis is critical to save the patient (start
antibiotics, drain abscess if present, etc.)

27
Non-Hemorrhagic Types of
Shock (cont.)
•  "Obstructive" : key sign is distended neck veins
in the patient with shock
•  Tension pneumothorax
• 
Treat with anterior needle thoracostomy
•  Cardiac tamponade
• 
Treat initially with IV fluids
• 
Consider pericardiocentesis
•  Pulmonary embolus :
• 
Need to confirm diagnosis (V/Q or spiral CAT scan)
• 
Then treat with thrombolytics or embolectomy
28
Non-Hemorrhagic Types of
Shock (cont.)
•  Cardiogenic : due to heart pumping
dysfunction
•  Acute myocardial infarction (sometimes this
can be the original cause of a person injuring
themself in a traffic accident or fall)
•  Myocardial contusion
• 
Actually is rare even with major blunt chest
trauma
•  May require treatment with vasopressors
(dopamine)
29
Non-Hemorrhagic Types of
Shock (cont.)
•  Neurogenic : due to spinal cord injury and loss
of sympathetic nervous system outflow
•  Results in venous pooling, peripheral vasodilation
•  Often has relative bradycardia
•  Treat with IV fluids first, then alpha vasoconstrictors
if hypovolemic shock ruled out

•  Spinal shock : actually is a "cord-stunning"
syndrome
•  Flaccidity and loss of reflexes
•  Is an "electrical" phenomenon of the spinal cord
•  May have complete recovery
30
Pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment
(PASG)
•  Also called MAST (Military Anti-Shock Trousers)
•  Probably not useful for most trauma cases
•  Some studies actually indicate increased mortality with
routine use
•  Placement can interfere with physical exam and
placement of femoral IV lines
•  Dangerous if prematurely or rapidly deflated
•  Most of complications associated with inflation of
abdominal compartment
•  Prolonged inflation can cause compartment syndrome

31
Pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment
(PASG)
•  Inflation may be helpful for :
•  Reducing bleeding from pelvic fractures
•  Splinting fractured femurs
•  Non-pharmacologic treatment of
Supraventricular tachycardia
•  Anaphylactic shock

32
PASG : Contraindications
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Pregnancy
Evisceration
Suspected diaphragm rupture
Increased intracranial pressure
Uncontrolled hemorrhage from body area
(chest) not covered by the garment
•  Pulmonary edema

33
Measurement of Central Venous
Pressure (CVP) in Shock Patients
•  CVP acts as measure of right side of heart's
ability to accept a fluid load
•  Central venous IV line not needed for most
trauma patients
•  CVP line measurements may be helpful for
patients with :
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Preexistent cardiac dysfunction (CHF)
Implanted pacemaker
Neurogenic shock
Myocardial contusion
Suspected cardiac tamponade
34
Interpretation of Initial CVP in
Trauma Patients
•  Low (< 6 mm Hg) : Hypovolemia
•  Continue IV fluids or transfusion

•  High (> 15 to 18 mm Hg) :
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Hypervolemia (overtransfusion)
Right heart failure (infarction)
Cardiac tamponade
Lung disease
Tension pneumothorax
Catheter malposition
Vasopressors or PASG inflation
35
Interpretation of CVP Changes
With Resuscitation
Initial CVP

Low
Low
Low or Mid
High

Change

Interpretation

Action
More IV fluid

None

Persistent
Hypovolemia

Slow IV rate

Rising

Resuscitation
succeeding

Falling
None

Ongoing fluid
loss
Hypervolemia
or problems on
prior slide

More rapid IV
fluid
Slow IV rate

36
Monitoring of the Shock Patient
•  Response to therapy judged by monitoring :
•  Patient's mental status & speech
•  Pulse, blood pressure, respirations
•  Urine output (should be at least 1 cc / Kg / hr. or
30 cc / hr in adults)
•  Capillary refill & skin pertusion
•  CVP
•  Lab data (less important than clinical parameters)

37
Lab Results in the Shock Patient
•  Hematocrit
•  May be normal initially despite severe blood loss
•  If low initially may represent very severe blood loss

•  Blood urea nitrogen
•  May be elevated if hypovolemic (prerenal azotemia)
or if blood in upper GI tract
•  Small elevations may represent severe dehydration
in children

•  Serum glucose
•  May be highly elevated from stress alone (not due to
diabetes)
38
Lab Results in the Shock Patient
(cont.)
•  White blood cell count
•  Whether high or normal or low has little
diagnostic or prognostic significance

•  Serum calcium
•  May be low if citrated blood transfused
•  Usually not necessary to treat

39
Causes of Coagulopathy in the
Shock Patient
•  Hypothermia : (usually temp. < 35.5 degrees Celsius)
•  Most common cause
•  Very important to take all possible measures to
prevent
•  Massive transfusion
•  "Washout" of coagulation factors and platelets
•  May need one unit fresh frozen plasma per 6 to 8
units of blood transfused
•  May need one pack (6 to 8 units) of platelets per 8 to
12 units of blood transfused
•  Sepsis
•  Preexistent coagulopathy or liver failure
40
•  Drug or toxin effect
Considerations If the Patient Fails to
Respond to Treatment for Shock
•  Unrecognized fluid loss
•  Ventilation problems
•  Acute gastric distention
•  Treat by NG tube / suction
•  Cardiac tamponade
•  Acute myocardial infarction
•  Diabetic Ketoacidosis
•  Adrenal crisis
•  Neurogenic shock
•  Hypothermia
•  Drug or toxin effect
41
Hidden Blood Loss from Fractures
INJURY
Closed leg fracture
Closed femur fracture
Open femur fracture
Closed arm fracture
Closed spine fracture
Closed pelvis fracture
Open pelvic fracture

Range of Blood Loss (ml)

500 to 1000
500 to 2500
1000 to > 2500
500 to 750
500 to 1500
1000 to > 3000
> 2500
42
Shock Assessment & Treatment
Summary
•  Start shock treatment with the primary
survey
•  Categorize the initial estimated blood loss
•  Assess the type(s) of shock present
•  Frequently reassess the response to
treatment
•  Progressive or non-responsive shock may
require emergent surgery for correction

43

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GEMC: Recognition and Management of Shock: Resident Training

  • 1. Project: Ghana Emergency Medicine Collaborative Document Title: Recognition and Management of Shock (2012) Author(s): Jim Holliman, M.D., Uniformed Services University License: Unless otherwise noted, this material is made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Share Alike-3.0 License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ We have reviewed this material in accordance with U.S. Copyright Law and have tried to maximize your ability to use, share, and adapt it. These lectures have been modified in the process of making a publicly shareable version. The citation key on the following slide provides information about how you may share and adapt this material. Copyright holders of content included in this material should contact open.michigan@umich.edu with any questions, corrections, or clarification regarding the use of content. For more information about how to cite these materials visit http://open.umich.edu/privacy-and-terms-use. Any medical information in this material is intended to inform and educate and is not a tool for self-diagnosis or a replacement for medical evaluation, advice, diagnosis or treatment by a healthcare professional. Please speak to your physician if you have questions about your medical condition. Viewer discretion is advised: Some medical content is graphic and may not be suitable for all viewers. 1
  • 2. Attribution Key for more information see: http://open.umich.edu/wiki/AttributionPolicy Use + Share + Adapt { Content the copyright holder, author, or law permits you to use, share and adapt. } Public Domain – Government: Works that are produced by the U.S. Government. (17 USC § 105) Public Domain – Expired: Works that are no longer protected due to an expired copyright term. Public Domain – Self Dedicated: Works that a copyright holder has dedicated to the public domain. Creative Commons – Zero Waiver Creative Commons – Attribution License Creative Commons – Attribution Share Alike License Creative Commons – Attribution Noncommercial License Creative Commons – Attribution Noncommercial Share Alike License GNU – Free Documentation License Make Your Own Assessment { Content Open.Michigan believes can be used, shared, and adapted because it is ineligible for copyright. } Public Domain – Ineligible: Works that are ineligible for copyright protection in the U.S. (17 USC § 102(b)) *laws in your jurisdiction may differ { Content Open.Michigan has used under a Fair Use determination. } Fair Use: Use of works that is determined to be Fair consistent with the U.S. Copyright Act. (17 USC § 107) *laws in your jurisdiction may differ Our determination DOES NOT mean that all uses of this 3rd-party content are Fair Uses and we DO NOT guarantee that your use of the content is Fair. 2 To use this content you should do your own independent analysis to determine whether or not your use will be Fair.
  • 3. Recognition and Management of Shock Jim Holliman, M.D., F.A.C.E.P. Program Manager, Afghanistan Health Care Sector Reconstruction Project Center for Disaster and Humanitarian Assistance Medicine Professor of Military and Emergency Medicine Uniformed Services University Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.A. 3
  • 4. Shock : Lecture Objectives •  Define shock •  Recognize stages or degrees of shock •  Know appropriate management for each stage 4
  • 5. Shock •  Definitions : •  A state of inadequate tissue oxygenation & organ perfusion •  Situation when the circulation is inadequate for metabolic needs 5
  • 6. Principles of Shock Recognition and Management •  Patients in shock may only exhibit subtle signs •  Identifying the cause is usually less important than starting treatment •  Goal is to restore perfusion and correct the shock state •  Frequent reassessment of response to treatment is important 6
  • 7. The Body's Mechanisms to Try to Compensate for Shock •  Increase cardiac output : tachycardia •  Increase oxygen supply : tachypnea •  Release of vasoactive mediators •  Nausea •  Peripheral vasoconstriction •  Cool, clammy skin, increased diastolic pressure, decreased urine output •  Note : "Compensated" shock is still dangerous and needs treatment ; pediatric patients may maintain a partially compensated shock and then suddenly catastrophically deteriorate 7
  • 8. Types of Shock •  Hemorrhagic : most common in trauma patients •  Hypovolemic (emesis, diarrhea, etc.) •  "Obstructive" •  Pulmonary embolus, cardiac tamponade, tension pneumothorax •  Cardiogenic •  Acute myocardial infarction, Myocardial contusion •  Neurogenic •  Septic •  Anaphylactic 8
  • 9. Principle of Treatment for Shock •  In the trauma patient in shock : always treat for hemorrhagic shock first 9
  • 10. General Symptoms of Shock •  •  •  •  •  Weakness Dizziness Lightheadedness Nausea Sense of impending doom 10
  • 11. General Signs of Shock •  Decreased mental status or confusion •  Cool, clammy, or grey or ashen color skin •  Diaphoresis •  Tachycardia •  Tachypnea •  Hypotension •  Oliguria 11
  • 12. Hemorrhagic Shock •  Hemorrhage definition : •  Acute loss of circulating blood ; can be internal and / or external •  Normal body blood volume •  Adults : 7 % of ideal body weight •  5 liters in 70 kg adult •  Children : 8 % of ideal body weight •  80 ml/kg 12
  • 13. The Four Stages of Hemorrhagic Shock •  Stage 1 hemorrhage : 0 to 15 % of total blood volume (TBV) •  Stage 2 hemorrhage : 15 to 30 % of TBV •  Stage 3 hemorrhage : 30 to 40 % of TBV •  Stage 4 hemorrhage : > 40 % of TBV 13
  • 14. Comparison of the Four Stages of Hemorrhagic Shock Blood % TBV CNS Stage lost lost SX (cc) Systolic BP Dias- Resps. tolic BP Pulse Urine Output (ml/hr) <750 0 to 15 Slightly Normal. Normal. 14 to 20 <100 15 to 30 Mildly 2 750 1500 30 to 40 Confu- 3 15002000 anxious 1 >2000 4 anxious sed, anxious >40 Lethargic or unconc. Normal. >30 Treatment Crystalloid 20 to 30 >100 20 to 30 Crystal- 30 to 40 >120 5 to 15 Crystal- >40 >140 loid, may need blood loid & blood Negligible Rapid fluids, blood, surgery 14
  • 15. Stage 1 Hemorrhage •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  Blood lost : < 750 cc % TBV lost : 0 to 15 CNS Symptoms : Slightly anxious Systolic BP : Normal Diastolic BP : Normal Respirations : 14 to 20 Pulse : < 100 Urine Output (ml/ hr) : > 30 Treatment : crystalloid ( 3 to 1 ratio) IV 15
  • 16. Stage 2 Hemorrhage •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  Blood lost : 750 to 1500 cc % TBV lost : 15 to 30 CNS Symptoms : mildly anxious Systolic BP : normal Diastolic BP : increased Respirations : 20 to 30 Pulse : > 100 Urine output : 20 to 30 cc/hr Treatment : crystalloid, may need blood 16
  • 17. Stage 3 Hemorrhage •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  Blood lost : 1500 to 2000 cc % TBV lost : 30 to 40 CNS symptoms : confused, anxious Systolic BP : Diastolic BP : Respirations : 30 to 40 Pulse : > 120 Urine output : 5 to 15 cc/hr Treatment : crystalloid and blood 17
  • 18. Stage 4 Hemorrhage •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  Blood lost : > 2000 cc % TBV lost : > 40 CNS symptoms : lethargic or unconscious Systolic BP : Diastolic BP : Respirations : > 40 Pulse : > 140 Urine output : negligible Treatment : rapid fluids, blood, surgery 18
  • 19. Variations in Manifestations of the Four Stages of Shock •  Patients do not always show the progression of signs & sx listed on the prior 4 slides with progression of the degree or severity of shock •  Some adults, especially young adults, may have normal pulse rates or even bradycardia with stage 2 or 3 shock •  Pediatric patients may remain in "compensated" shock until almost preterminal stage 4 shock 19
  • 20. Sequence of Assessment of the Patient in Shock •  Airway •  Breathing •  Oxygenate •  Ventilate •  Circulation •  Stop external hemorrhage with direct pressure •  Start IV fluid resuscitation •  Assess for "obstructive shock" •  Tension pneumothorax : needle thoracostomy •  Cardiac tamponade : pericardiocentesis 20
  • 21. Rapid Fluid Resuscitation for Shock •  Draw blood for type and cross-match from the needlestick for the IV line •  Place large bore (> 18 gauge) IV if possible •  Place 2 IV lines if Stage 3 or 4 shock •  Initially run fluid in "wide-open" •  Use large drip chamber IV tubing •  May need pressure bags on the IV bags •  Usually use Lactated Ringers •  Choose normal saline if patient may be hyperkalemic •  Normal saline also preferred for same IV line to be used for blood transfusion •  Do not use vasopressors ; treat with fluids 21
  • 22. Alternative Vascular Access Sites for Shock Treatment •  Peripheral vein in upper extremity ; Preferred in most patients •  Avoid if possible proximal limb fracture •  Central veins •  Subclavian or internal jugular vein ; accessible even in Stage 4 shock •  Access can cause pneumothorax (always get CXR to check) •  Femoral vein ; easy and safer to place •  If abdominal injury present, fluid may extravasate in abdomen •  Intraosseous line : may be easiest and even preferred initial route in children ; can also be tried in adults 22 •  Intraperitoneal
  • 23. Other Resuscitative Procedures for Severe Shock •  Blood transfusion •  Type - O-negative (if needed immediately) •  Type - specific (if needed in < 15 minutes) •  Fully crossmatched •  Emergent left thoracotomy, pericardiotomy, aortic clamping •  Autotransfusion •  Most useful for blood output from chest tubes 23
  • 24. Indications for Emergent Transfusion With O-Negative Blood •  No palpable blood pressure at arrival •  Multiple simultaneous patients requiring emergent transfusion •  Rapid deterioration or sudden large volume external blood loss and type specific blood not immediately available 24
  • 25. Indications for Transfusion With Type-Specific or Fully Crossmatched Blood •  Type-specific : (usually takes 5 to 10 minutes to obtain from blood bank) •  Transfusion emergent but can wait 10 minutes but not 60 minutes •  Fully crossmatched : (takes 45 to 60 minutes) •  Patient stable enough that transfusion can be delayed 45 to 60 minutes until blood is ready 25
  • 26. Non-Hemorrhagic Types of Shock •  Hypovolemic (non-hemorrhagic) shock •  Due to vomiting , diarrhea, "third spacing" of fluid •  Treat with IV Lactated Ringers or saline •  Does not need blood transfusion •  Anaphylactic shock •  Due to allergic reaction with release of vasoactive mediators which can cause airway edema & vasodilatation •  Treat with IV fluids & epinephrine 26
  • 27. Non-Hemorrhagic Types of Shock (cont.) •  Septic Shock •  Can be a late or delayed complication •  Patient may have fever or hypothermia •  Treat with IV fluids ; sometimes need secondary treatment with vasopressors •  Finding and directly treating the source of the sepsis is critical to save the patient (start antibiotics, drain abscess if present, etc.) 27
  • 28. Non-Hemorrhagic Types of Shock (cont.) •  "Obstructive" : key sign is distended neck veins in the patient with shock •  Tension pneumothorax •  Treat with anterior needle thoracostomy •  Cardiac tamponade •  Treat initially with IV fluids •  Consider pericardiocentesis •  Pulmonary embolus : •  Need to confirm diagnosis (V/Q or spiral CAT scan) •  Then treat with thrombolytics or embolectomy 28
  • 29. Non-Hemorrhagic Types of Shock (cont.) •  Cardiogenic : due to heart pumping dysfunction •  Acute myocardial infarction (sometimes this can be the original cause of a person injuring themself in a traffic accident or fall) •  Myocardial contusion •  Actually is rare even with major blunt chest trauma •  May require treatment with vasopressors (dopamine) 29
  • 30. Non-Hemorrhagic Types of Shock (cont.) •  Neurogenic : due to spinal cord injury and loss of sympathetic nervous system outflow •  Results in venous pooling, peripheral vasodilation •  Often has relative bradycardia •  Treat with IV fluids first, then alpha vasoconstrictors if hypovolemic shock ruled out •  Spinal shock : actually is a "cord-stunning" syndrome •  Flaccidity and loss of reflexes •  Is an "electrical" phenomenon of the spinal cord •  May have complete recovery 30
  • 31. Pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (PASG) •  Also called MAST (Military Anti-Shock Trousers) •  Probably not useful for most trauma cases •  Some studies actually indicate increased mortality with routine use •  Placement can interfere with physical exam and placement of femoral IV lines •  Dangerous if prematurely or rapidly deflated •  Most of complications associated with inflation of abdominal compartment •  Prolonged inflation can cause compartment syndrome 31
  • 32. Pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (PASG) •  Inflation may be helpful for : •  Reducing bleeding from pelvic fractures •  Splinting fractured femurs •  Non-pharmacologic treatment of Supraventricular tachycardia •  Anaphylactic shock 32
  • 33. PASG : Contraindications •  •  •  •  •  Pregnancy Evisceration Suspected diaphragm rupture Increased intracranial pressure Uncontrolled hemorrhage from body area (chest) not covered by the garment •  Pulmonary edema 33
  • 34. Measurement of Central Venous Pressure (CVP) in Shock Patients •  CVP acts as measure of right side of heart's ability to accept a fluid load •  Central venous IV line not needed for most trauma patients •  CVP line measurements may be helpful for patients with : •  •  •  •  •  Preexistent cardiac dysfunction (CHF) Implanted pacemaker Neurogenic shock Myocardial contusion Suspected cardiac tamponade 34
  • 35. Interpretation of Initial CVP in Trauma Patients •  Low (< 6 mm Hg) : Hypovolemia •  Continue IV fluids or transfusion •  High (> 15 to 18 mm Hg) : •  •  •  •  •  •  •  Hypervolemia (overtransfusion) Right heart failure (infarction) Cardiac tamponade Lung disease Tension pneumothorax Catheter malposition Vasopressors or PASG inflation 35
  • 36. Interpretation of CVP Changes With Resuscitation Initial CVP Low Low Low or Mid High Change Interpretation Action More IV fluid None Persistent Hypovolemia Slow IV rate Rising Resuscitation succeeding Falling None Ongoing fluid loss Hypervolemia or problems on prior slide More rapid IV fluid Slow IV rate 36
  • 37. Monitoring of the Shock Patient •  Response to therapy judged by monitoring : •  Patient's mental status & speech •  Pulse, blood pressure, respirations •  Urine output (should be at least 1 cc / Kg / hr. or 30 cc / hr in adults) •  Capillary refill & skin pertusion •  CVP •  Lab data (less important than clinical parameters) 37
  • 38. Lab Results in the Shock Patient •  Hematocrit •  May be normal initially despite severe blood loss •  If low initially may represent very severe blood loss •  Blood urea nitrogen •  May be elevated if hypovolemic (prerenal azotemia) or if blood in upper GI tract •  Small elevations may represent severe dehydration in children •  Serum glucose •  May be highly elevated from stress alone (not due to diabetes) 38
  • 39. Lab Results in the Shock Patient (cont.) •  White blood cell count •  Whether high or normal or low has little diagnostic or prognostic significance •  Serum calcium •  May be low if citrated blood transfused •  Usually not necessary to treat 39
  • 40. Causes of Coagulopathy in the Shock Patient •  Hypothermia : (usually temp. < 35.5 degrees Celsius) •  Most common cause •  Very important to take all possible measures to prevent •  Massive transfusion •  "Washout" of coagulation factors and platelets •  May need one unit fresh frozen plasma per 6 to 8 units of blood transfused •  May need one pack (6 to 8 units) of platelets per 8 to 12 units of blood transfused •  Sepsis •  Preexistent coagulopathy or liver failure 40 •  Drug or toxin effect
  • 41. Considerations If the Patient Fails to Respond to Treatment for Shock •  Unrecognized fluid loss •  Ventilation problems •  Acute gastric distention •  Treat by NG tube / suction •  Cardiac tamponade •  Acute myocardial infarction •  Diabetic Ketoacidosis •  Adrenal crisis •  Neurogenic shock •  Hypothermia •  Drug or toxin effect 41
  • 42. Hidden Blood Loss from Fractures INJURY Closed leg fracture Closed femur fracture Open femur fracture Closed arm fracture Closed spine fracture Closed pelvis fracture Open pelvic fracture Range of Blood Loss (ml) 500 to 1000 500 to 2500 1000 to > 2500 500 to 750 500 to 1500 1000 to > 3000 > 2500 42
  • 43. Shock Assessment & Treatment Summary •  Start shock treatment with the primary survey •  Categorize the initial estimated blood loss •  Assess the type(s) of shock present •  Frequently reassess the response to treatment •  Progressive or non-responsive shock may require emergent surgery for correction 43