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Ch 20_lecture_presentation1
1.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College—North Harris 20 The Heart
2.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System • The Pulmonary Circuit • Carries blood to and from gas exchange surfaces of lungs • The Systemic Circuit • Carries blood to and from the body • Blood alternates between pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit
3.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System • Three Types of Blood Vessels 1. Arteries • Carry blood away from heart 1. Veins • Carry blood to heart 1. Capillaries • Networks between arteries and veins
4.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System • Capillaries • Also called exchange vessels • Exchange materials between blood and tissues • Materials include dissolved gases, nutrients, waste products
5.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-1 An Overview of the Cardiovascular System PULMONARY CIRCUIT SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary veins Systemic veins Systemic arteries Capillaries in lungs Right atrium Right ventricle Capillaries in trunk and lower limbs Capillaries in head, neck, upper limbs Left atrium Left ventricle
6.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System • Four Chambers of the Heart 1. Right atrium • Collects blood from systemic circuit 1. Right ventricle • Pumps blood to pulmonary circuit 1. Left atrium • Collects blood from pulmonary circuit 1. Left ventricle • Pumps blood to systemic circuit
7.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Heart • Great veins and arteries at the base • Pointed tip is apex • Surrounded by pericardial sac • Sits between two pleural cavities in the mediastinum
8.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-2a The Location of the Heart in the Thoracic Cavity Trachea First rib (cut) Base of heart Right lung Diaphragm Thyroid gland Left lung Apex of heart Parietal pericardium (cut) An anterior view of the chest, showing the position of the heart and major blood vessels relative to the ribs, lungs, and diaphragm.
9.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Pericardium • Double lining of the pericardial cavity • Visceral pericardium • Inner layer of pericardium • Parietal pericardium • Outer layer • Forms inner layer of pericardial sac
10.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Pericardium • Pericardial cavity • Is between parietal and visceral layers • Contains pericardial fluid • Pericardial sac • Fibrous tissue • Surrounds and stabilizes heart
11.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-2b The Location of the Heart in the Thoracic Cavity Right ventricle Aortic arch Posterior mediastinum Aorta (arch segment removed) Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary vein Pulmonary trunk Left ventricle Epicardium Pericardial sac Anterior mediastinum Pericardial cavity Right atrium Left atrium Right pulmonary artery Right pulmonary vein Superior vena cava Esophagus Right pleural cavity Bronchus of lung Right lung Left lung Left pleural cavity A superior view of the organs in the mediastinum; portions of the lungs have been removed to reveal blood vessels and airways. The heart is situated in the anterior part of the mediastinum, immediately posterior to the sternum.
12.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-2c The Location of the Heart in the Thoracic Cavity Wrist (corresponds to base of heart) Inner wall (corresponds to epicardium) Air space (corresponds to pericardial cavity) Outer wall (corresponds to parietal pericardium) Balloon Cut edge of parietal pericardium Fibrous tissue of pericardial sac Parietal pericardium Areolar tissue Mesothelium Cut edge of epicardium Apex of heart Base of heart Fibrous attachment to diaphragm The relationship between the heart and the pericardial cavity; compare with the fist-and-balloon example.
13.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Superficial Anatomy of the Heart • Atria • Thin-walled • Expandable outer auricle (atrial appendage)
14.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Superficial Anatomy of the Heart • Sulci • Coronary sulcus divides atria and ventricles • Anterior interventricular sulcus and posterior interventricular sulcus • Separate left and right ventricles • Contain blood vessels of cardiac muscle
15.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-3a The Superficial Anatomy of the Heart Left common carotid artery Brachiocephalic trunk Ascending aorta Superior vena cava Auricle of right atrium Fat and vessels in coronary sulcus Left subclavian artery Arch of aorta Ligamentum arteriosum Descending aorta Left pulmonary artery Pulmonary trunk Auricle of left atrium Fat and vessels in anterior interventricular sulcus LEFT VENTRICLE RIGHT VENTRICLE RIGHT ATRIUM Major anatomical features on the anterior surface.
16.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-3a The Superficial Anatomy of the Heart Ascending aorta Parietal pericardium Superior vena cava Auricle of right atrium RIGHT ATRIUM Right coronary artery Coronary sulcus RIGHT VENTRICLE Marginal branch of right coronary artery Auricle of left atrium Pulmonary trunk Fibrous pericardium Parietal pericardium fused to diaphragm Anterior interventricular sulcus LEFT VENTRICLE Major anatomical features on the anterior surface.
17.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-3b The Superficial Anatomy of the Heart Arch of aorta Right pulmonary artery Superior vena cava Right pulmonary veins (superior and inferior) Inferior vena cava Fat and vessels in posterior interventricular sulcus RIGHT VENTRICLE LEFT VENTRICLE RIGHT ATRIUM LEFT ATRIUM Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary veins Fat and vessels in coronary sulcus Coronary sinus Major landmarks on the posterior surface. Coronary arteries (which supply the heart itself) are shown in red; coronary veins are shown in blue.
18.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-3c The Superficial Anatomy of the Heart Base of heart Apex of heart Ribs Heart position relative to the rib cage. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
19.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Heart Wall 1. Epicardium 2. Myocardium 3. Endocardium
20.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Epicardium (Outer Layer) • Visceral pericardium • Covers the heart
21.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Myocardium (Middle Layer) • Muscular wall of the heart • Concentric layers of cardiac muscle tissue • Atrial myocardium wraps around great vessels • Two divisions of ventricular myocardium • Endocardium (Inner Layer) • Simple squamous epithelium
22.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-4a The Heart Wall Mesothelium Endocardium Areolar tissue Endothelium Mesothelium Dense fibrous layer Parietal pericardium Pericardial cavity Areolar tissue Areolar tissue Connective tissues Cardiac muscle cells Myocardium (cardiac muscle tissue) Epicardium (visceral pericardium)
23.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-4b The Heart Wall Atrial musculature Cardiac muscle tissue forms concentric layers that wrap around the atria or spiral within the walls of the ventricles. Ventricular musculature
24.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Cardiac Muscle Tissue • Intercalated discs • Interconnect cardiac muscle cells • Secured by desmosomes • Linked by gap junctions • Convey force of contraction • Propagate action potentials
25.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-5a Cardiac Muscle Cells Cardiac muscle cells Nucleus Cardiac muscle cell (sectioned) Bundles of myofibrils Cardiac muscle cell Mitochondria Intercalated disc (sectioned) Intercalated discs
26.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-5b Cardiac Muscle Cells Intercalated disc Gap junction Opposing plasma membranes Desmosomes Structure of an intercalated disc
27.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-5c Cardiac Muscle Cells Intercalated discs Cardiac muscle tissue Cardiac muscle tissue LM × 575
28.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Cells 1. Small size 2. Single, central nucleus 3. Branching interconnections between cells 4. Intercalated discs
29.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Internal Anatomy and Organization • Interatrial septum separates atria • Interventricular septum separates ventricles
30.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Internal Anatomy and Organization • Atrioventricular (AV) valves • Connect right atrium to right ventricle and left atrium to left ventricle • Are folds of fibrous tissue that extend into openings between atria and ventricles • Permit blood flow in one direction • From atria to ventricles
31.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Right Atrium • Superior vena cava • Receives blood from head, neck, upper limbs, and chest • Inferior vena cava • Receives blood from trunk, viscera, and lower limbs • Coronary sinus • Cardiac veins return blood to coronary sinus • Coronary sinus opens into right atrium
32.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Right Atrium • Foramen ovale • Before birth, is an opening through interatrial septum • Connects the two atria • Seals off at birth, forming fossa ovalis
33.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Right Atrium • Pectinate muscles • Contain prominent muscular ridges • On anterior atrial wall and inner surfaces of right auricle
34.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-6a The Sectional Anatomy of the Heart Descending aorta Left common carotid artery Left subclavian artery Ligamentum arteriosum Pulmonary trunk Pulmonary valve Left pulmonary arteries Left pulmonary veins Interatrial septum Aortic valve Cusp of left AV (mitral) valve LEFT VENTRICLE Interventricular septum Trabeculae carneae Moderator band Aortic arch LEFT ATRIUM Brachiocephalic trunk Superior vena cava Right pulmonary arteries Ascending aorta Fossa ovalis Opening of coronary sinus RIGHT ATRIUM Pectinate muscles Conus arteriosus Cusp of right AV (tricuspid) valve Chordae tendineae Papillary muscles RIGHT VENTRICLE Inferior vena cava
35.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 20-6c The Sectional Anatomy of the Heart A frontal section, anterior view. Inferior vena cava RIGHT VENTRICLE Papillary muscles Cusps of right AV (tricuspid) valve Pectinate muscles RIGHT ATRIUM Fossa ovalis Ascending aorta Cusp of left AV (bicuspid) valve Interventricular septum LEFT VENTRICLE Chordae tendineae Left coronary artery branches (red) and great cardiac vein (blue) Cusp of aortic valve Coronary sinus Trabeculae carneae
36.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Right Ventricle • Free edges attach to chordae tendineae from papillary muscles of ventricle • Prevent valve from opening backward • Right atrioventricular (AV) valve • Also called tricuspid valve • Opening from right atrium to right ventricle • Has three cusps • Prevents backflow
37.
© 2012 Pearson
Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Right Ventricle • Trabeculae carneae • Muscular ridges on internal surface of right (and left) ventricle • Includes moderator band • Ridge contains part of conducting system • Coordinates contractions of cardiac muscle cells
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-6b The Sectional Anatomy of the Heart The papillary muscles and chordae tendinae supporting the right AV (tricuspid) valve. The photograph was taken from inside the right ventricle, looking toward a light shining from the right atrium. Chordae tendineae Papillary muscles
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Pulmonary Circuit • Conus arteriosus (superior end of right ventricle) leads to pulmonary trunk • Pulmonary trunk divides into left and right pulmonary arteries • Blood flows from right ventricle to pulmonary trunk through pulmonary valve • Pulmonary valve has three semilunar cusps
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Left Atrium • Blood gathers into left and right pulmonary veins • Pulmonary veins deliver to left atrium • Blood from left atrium passes to left ventricle through left atrioventricular (AV) valve • A two-cusped bicuspid valve or mitral valve
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Left Ventricle • Holds same volume as right ventricle • Is larger; muscle is thicker and more powerful • Similar internally to right ventricle but does not have moderator band
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Left Ventricle • Systemic circulation • Blood leaves left ventricle through aortic valve into ascending aorta • Ascending aorta turns (aortic arch) and becomes descending aorta
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-6c The Sectional Anatomy of the Heart A frontal section, anterior view. Inferior vena cava RIGHT VENTRICLE Papillary muscles Cusps of right AV (tricuspid) valve Pectinate muscles RIGHT ATRIUM Fossa ovalis Ascending aorta Cusp of left AV (bicuspid) valve Interventricular septum LEFT VENTRICLE Chordae tendineae Left coronary artery branches (red) and great cardiac vein (blue) Cusp of aortic valve Coronary sinus Trabeculae carneae
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Structural Differences between the Left and Right Ventricles • Right ventricle wall is thinner, develops less pressure than left ventricle • Right ventricle is pouch-shaped, left ventricle is round ANIMATION The Heart: Heart Anatomy
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-7a Structural Differences between the Left and Right Ventricles Left ventricle Right ventricle Posterior interventricular sulcus Fat in anterior interventricular sulcus A diagrammatic sectional view through the heart, showing the relative thicknesses of the two ventricles. Notice the pouchlike shape of the right ventricle and the greater thickness of the left ventricle.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-7b Structural Differences between the Left and Right Ventricles Dilated Contracted Diagrammatic views of the ventricles just before a contraction (dilated) and just after a contraction (contracted). Left ventricle Right ventricle
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Heart Valves • Two pairs of one-way valves prevent backflow during contraction • Atrioventricular (AV) valves • Between atria and ventricles • Blood pressure closes valve cusps during ventricular contraction • Papillary muscles tense chordae tendineae to prevent valves from swinging into atria
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Heart Valves • Semilunar valves • Pulmonary and aortic tricuspid valves • Prevent backflow from pulmonary trunk and aorta into ventricles • Have no muscular support • Three cusps support like tripod
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Aortic Sinuses • At base of ascending aorta • Sacs that prevent valve cusps from sticking to aorta • Origin of right and left coronary arteries ANIMATION The Heart: Valves
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-8a Valves of the Heart Relaxedventricles Right AV (tricuspid) valve (open) Transverse Sections, Superior View, Atria and Vessels Removed POSTERIOR RIGHT VENTRICLE Cardiac skeleton Left AV (bicuspid) valve (open) LEFT VENTRICLE Aortic valve (closed) Pulmonary valve (closed)ANTERIOR Aortic valve closed When the ventricles are relaxed, the AV valves are open and the semilunar valves are closed. The chordae tendineae are loose, and the papillary muscles are relaxed.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-8a Valves of the Heart Aortic valve (closed) LEFT ATRIUM Left AV (bicuspid) valve (open) Chordae tendineae (loose) Papillary muscles (relaxed) LEFT VENTRICLE (relaxed and filling with blood) Pulmonary veins Frontal Sections through Left Atrium and Ventricle Relaxedventricles
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-8b Valves of the Heart Contractingventricles Aortic valve open RIGHT VENTRICLE Right AV (tricuspid) valve (closed) Cardiac skeleton Left AV (bicuspid) valve (closed) LEFT VENTRICLE Aortic valve (open) Pulmonary valve (open) When the ventricles are contracting, the AV valves are closed and the semilunar valves are open. In the frontal section notice the attachment of the left AV valve to the chordae tendineae and papillary muscles.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-8b Valves of the Heart Contractingventricles Aorta Aortic sinus LEFT ATRIUM Aortic valve (open) Left AV (bicuspid) valve (closed) Chordae tendineae (tense) Papillary muscles (contracted) Left ventricle (contracted)
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Connective Tissues and the Cardiac Skeleton • Connective Tissue Fibers 1. Physically support cardiac muscle fibers 2. Distribute forces of contraction 3. Add strength and prevent overexpansion of heart 4. Provide elasticity that helps return heart to original size and shape after contraction
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Cardiac Skeleton • Four bands around heart valves and bases of pulmonary trunk and aorta • Stabilize valves • Electrically insulate ventricular cells from atrial cells
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Blood Supply to the Heart • = Coronary circulation • Supplies blood to muscle tissue of heart • Coronary arteries and cardiac veins
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Coronary Arteries • Left and right • Originate at aortic sinuses • High blood pressure, elastic rebound forces blood through coronary arteries between contractions
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Right Coronary Artery • Supplies blood to: • Right atrium • Portions of both ventricles • Cells of sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular nodes • Marginal arteries (surface of right ventricle) • Posterior interventricular artery
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Left Coronary Artery • Supplies blood to: • Left ventricle • Left atrium • Interventricular septum
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • Two Main Branches of Left Coronary Artery 1. Circumflex artery 2. Anterior interventricular artery • Arterial Anastomoses • Interconnect anterior and posterior interventricular arteries • Stabilize blood supply to cardiac muscle
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Education, Inc. 20-1 Anatomy of the Heart • The Cardiac Veins • Great cardiac vein • Drains blood from area of anterior interventricular artery into coronary sinus • Anterior cardiac veins • Empty into right atrium • Posterior cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, and small cardiac vein • Empty into great cardiac vein or coronary sinus
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-9a Coronary Circulation Aortic arch Ascending aorta Right coronary artery Atrial arteries Anterior cardiac veins Small cardiac vein Marginal artery Left coronary artery Pulmonary trunk Circumflex artery Anterior interventricular artery Great cardiac vein Coronary vessels supplying and draining the anterior surface of the heart.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-9b Coronary Circulation Coronary sinus Circumflex artery Great cardiac vein Marginal artery Posterior interventricular artery Posterior cardiac vein Left ventricle Middle cardiac vein Marginal artery Right coronary artery Small cardiac vein Coronary vessels supplying and draining the posterior surface of the heart.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-9c Coronary Circulation Posterior interventricular artery Posterior cardiac vein Marginal artery Great cardiac vein Circumflex artery Auricle of left atrium Left pulmonary veins Left pulmonary artery Right pulmonary artery Superior vena cava Right pulmonary veins Left atrium Right atrium Inferior vena cava Coronary sinus Middle cardiac vein Right ventricle A posterior view of the heart; the vessels have been injected with colored latex (liquid rubber).
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-10 Heart Disease and Heart Attacks Narrowing of Artery Lipid deposit of plaque Cross-section Tunica externa Tunica media Cross-section Normal Artery
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Heartbeat • A single contraction of the heart • The entire heart contracts in series • First the atria • Then the ventricles
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Cardiac Physiology • Two Types of Cardiac Muscle Cells 1. Conducting system • Controls and coordinates heartbeat 1. Contractile cells • Produce contractions that propel blood
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Cardiac Cycle • Begins with action potential at SA node • Transmitted through conducting system • Produces action potentials in cardiac muscle cells (contractile cells) • Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) • Electrical events in the cardiac cycle can be recorded on an electrocardiogram
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Conducting System • A system of specialized cardiac muscle cells • Initiates and distributes electrical impulses that stimulate contraction • Automaticity • Cardiac muscle tissue contracts automatically
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Structures of the Conducting System • Sinoatrial (SA) node - wall of right atrium • Atrioventricular (AV) node - junction between atria and ventricles • Conducting cells - throughout myocardium
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Conducting Cells • Interconnect SA and AV nodes • Distribute stimulus through myocardium • In the atrium • Internodal pathways • In the ventricles • AV bundle and the bundle branches
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Prepotential • Also called pacemaker potential • Resting potential of conducting cells • Gradually depolarizes toward threshold • SA node depolarizes first, establishing heart rate ANIMATION The Heart: Conduction System
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-11a The Conducting System of the Heart AV bundle Components of the conducting system Purkinje fibers Bundle branches Atrioventricular (AV) node Internodal pathways Sinoatrial (SA) node
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-11b The Conducting System of the Heart Changes in the membrane potential of a pacemaker cell in the SA node that is establishing a heart rate of 72 beats per minute. Note the presence of a prepotential, a gradual spontaneous depolarization. Time (sec) Prepotential (spontaneous depolarization) Threshold
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Heart Rate • SA node generates 80–100 action potentials per minute • Parasympathetic stimulation slows heart rate • AV node generates 40–60 action potentials per minute
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Sinoatrial (SA) Node • In posterior wall of right atrium • Contains pacemaker cells • Connected to AV node by internodal pathways • Begins atrial activation (Step 1)
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-12 Impulse Conduction through the Heart (Step 1) Time = 0 SA node SA node activity and atrial activation begin.
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Atrioventricular (AV) Node • In floor of right atrium • Receives impulse from SA node (Step 2) • Delays impulse (Step 3) • Atrial contraction begins
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-12 Impulse Conduction through the Heart (Step 2) Elapsed time = 50 msec AV node Stimulus spreads across the atrial surfaces and reaches the AV node.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-12 Impulse Conduction through the Heart (Step 3) Elapsed time = 150 msec Bundle branches AV bundle There is a 100-msec delay at the AV node. Atrial contraction begins.
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The AV Bundle • In the septum • Carries impulse to left and right bundle branches • Which conduct to Purkinje fibers (Step 4) • And to the moderator band • Which conducts to papillary muscles
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-12 Impulse Conduction through the Heart (Step 4) Elapsed time = 175 msec Moderator band The impulse travels along the interventricular septum within the AV bundle and the bundle branches to the Purkinje fibers and, via the moderator band, to the papillary muscles of the right ventricle.
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Purkinje Fibers • Distribute impulse through ventricles (Step 5) • Atrial contraction is completed • Ventricular contraction begins
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-12 Impulse Conduction through the Heart (Step 5) Elapsed time = 225 msec Purkinje fibers The impulse is distributed by Purkinje fibers and relayed throughout the ventricular myocardium. Atrial contraction is completed, and ventricular contraction begins.
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Abnormal Pacemaker Function • Bradycardia - abnormally slow heart rate • Tachycardia - abnormally fast heart rate • Ectopic pacemaker • Abnormal cells • Generate high rate of action potentials • Bypass conducting system • Disrupt ventricular contractions
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) • A recording of electrical events in the heart • Obtained by electrodes at specific body locations • Abnormal patterns diagnose damage
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Features of an ECG • P wave • Atria depolarize • QRS complex • Ventricles depolarize • T wave • Ventricles repolarize
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Time Intervals between ECG Waves • P–R interval • From start of atrial depolarization • To start of QRS complex • Q–T interval • From ventricular depolarization • To ventricular repolarization
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-13a An Electrocardiogram Electrode placement for recording a standard ECG.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-13b An Electrocardiogram 800 msec SQ QRS interval (ventricles depolarize) Millivolts R P–R segment T wave (ventricles repolarize) R P wave (atria depolarize) S–T segment S–T interval Q–T interval P–R interval
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-14 Cardiac Arrhythmias Premature Atrial Contractions (PACs) Paroxysmal Atrial Tachycardia (PAT) Atrial Fibrillation (AF) PPP PPPPPP
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-14 Cardiac Arrhythmias Premature Ventricular Contractions (PVCs) Ventricular Tachycardia (VT) Ventricular Fibrillation (VF) PPP P TTT
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Contractile Cells • Purkinje fibers distribute the stimulus to the contractile cells, which make up most of the muscle cells in the heart • Resting Potential • Of a ventricular cell about –90 mV • Of an atrial cell about –80 mV
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-15a The Action Potential in Skeletal and Cardiac Muscle Rapid Depolarization The Plateau Repolarization Cause: Na+ entry Duration: 3–5 msec Ends with: Closure of voltage-gated fast sodium channels Cause: Ca2+ entry Duration: ~175 msec Ends with: Closure of slow calcium channels Cause: K+ loss Duration: 75 msec Ends with: Closure of slow potassium channels Relative refractory period Stimulus Events in an action potential in a ventricular muscle cell. KEY Absolute refractory period Relative refractory period Absolute refractory period Time (msec) mV
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-15b The Action Potential in Skeletal and Cardiac Muscle mV SKELETAL MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE Action potentialmV Contraction Tension Time (msec) Time (msec) ContractionTension Action potential KEY Absolute refractory period Relative refractory period Action potentials and twitch contractions in a skeletal muscle (above) and cardiac muscle (below).
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Refractory Period • Absolute refractory period • Long • Cardiac muscle cells cannot respond • Relative refractory period • Short • Response depends on degree of stimulus
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • Timing of Refractory Periods • Length of cardiac action potential in ventricular cell • 250–300 msec • 30 times longer than skeletal muscle fiber • Long refractory period prevents summation and tetany
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Role of Calcium Ions in Cardiac Contractions • Contraction of a cardiac muscle cell • Is produced by an increase in calcium ion concentration around myofibrils
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Role of Calcium Ions in Cardiac Contractions 1. 20% of calcium ions required for a contraction • Calcium ions enter plasma membrane during plateau phase 1. Arrival of extracellular Ca2+ • Triggers release of calcium ion reserves from sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Role of Calcium Ions in Cardiac Contractions • As slow calcium channels close • Intracellular Ca2+ is absorbed by the SR • Or pumped out of cell • Cardiac muscle tissue • Very sensitive to extracellular Ca2+ concentrations
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Education, Inc. 20-2 The Conducting System • The Energy for Cardiac Contractions • Aerobic energy of heart • From mitochondrial breakdown of fatty acids and glucose • Oxygen from circulating hemoglobin • Cardiac muscles store oxygen in myoglobin
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • The Cardiac Cycle • Is the period between the start of one heartbeat and the beginning of the next • Includes both contraction and relaxation
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Two Phases of the Cardiac Cycle • Within any one chamber 1. Systole (contraction) 2. Diastole (relaxation)
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-16 Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle 370 msec 100 msec 0 msec800 msec Start
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-16a Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle 100 msec 0 msec800 msec Atrial systole begins: Atrial contraction forces a small amount of additional blood into relaxed ventricles. Start
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-16b Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle 100 msec Atrial systole ends, atrial diastole begins
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-16c Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle Ventricular systole— first phase: Ventricular contraction pushes AV valves closed but does not create enough pressure to open semilunar valves.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-16d Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle 370 msec Ventricular systole— second phase: As ventricular pressure rises and exceeds pressure in the arteries, the semilunar valves open and blood is ejected.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-16e Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle 370 msec Ventricular diastole—early: As ventricles relax, pressure in ventricles drops; blood flows back against cusps of semilunar valves and forces them closed. Blood flows into the relaxed atria.
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-16f Phases of the Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle Ventricular diastole—late: All chambers are relaxed. Ventricles fill passively. 800 msec
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Blood Pressure • In any chamber • Rises during systole • Falls during diastole • Blood flows from high to low pressure • Controlled by timing of contractions • Directed by one-way valves
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Cardiac Cycle and Heart Rate • At 75 beats per minute (bpm) • Cardiac cycle lasts about 800 msec • When heart rate increases • All phases of cardiac cycle shorten, particularly diastole
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Phases of the Cardiac Cycle • Atrial systole • Atrial diastole • Ventricular systole • Ventricular diastole
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Atrial Systole 1. Atrial systole • Atrial contraction begins • Right and left AV valves are open 1. Atria eject blood into ventricles • Filling ventricles 3. Atrial systole ends • AV valves close • Ventricles contain maximum blood volume • Known as end-diastolic volume (EDV)
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Ventricular Systole 4. Ventricles contract and build pressure • AV valves close cause isovolumetric contraction 5. Ventricular ejection • Ventricular pressure exceeds vessel pressure opening the semilunar valves and allowing blood to leave the ventricle • Amount of blood ejected is called the stroke volume (SV)
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Ventricular Systole 6. Ventricular pressure falls • Semilunar valves close • Ventricles contain end-systolic volume (ESV), about 40% of end-diastolic volume
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-17 Pressure and Volume Relationships in the Cardiac Cycle ATRIAL SYSTOLE ATRIAL DIASTOLE VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE Stroke volume End-diastolic volume Left ventricular volume(mL) Pressure (mmHg) Aortic valve opens Aorta Left ventricle Left atrium Left AV valve closes AV valves open; passive ventricular filling occurs. Isovolumetric relaxation occurs. Semilunar valves close. Ventricular ejection occurs. Isovolumetric ventricular contraction. Atrial systole ends; AV valves close. Atria eject blood into ventricles. Atrial contraction begins. ATRIAL DIASTOLE Time (msec)
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Ventricular Diastole 7. Ventricular diastole • Ventricular pressure is higher than atrial pressure • All heart valves are closed • Ventricles relax (isovolumetric relaxation) 8. Atrial pressure is higher than ventricular pressure • AV valves open • Passive atrial filling • Passive ventricular filling
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-17 Pressure and Volume Relationships in the Cardiac Cycle ATRIAL SYSTOLE ATRIAL DIASTOLE VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE AV valves open; passive ventricular filling occurs. Isovolumetric relaxation occurs. Semilunar valves close. Ventricular ejection occurs. Isovolumetric ventricular contraction. Atrial systole ends; AV valves close. Atria eject blood into ventricles. Atrial contraction begins. Time (msec) End-systolic volume Aortic valve closes Dicrotic notch Left AV valve opens Left ventricular volume(mL) Pressure (mmHg)
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • Heart Sounds • S1 • Loud sounds • Produced by AV valves • S2 • Loud sounds • Produced by semilunar valves ANIMATION The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
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Education, Inc. 20-3 The Cardiac Cycle • S3, S4 • Soft sounds • Blood flow into ventricles and atrial contraction • Heart Murmur • Sounds produced by regurgitation through valves
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-18a Heart Sounds Aortic valve Pulmonary valve Valve location Sounds heard Left AV valve Right AV valve Placements of a stethoscope for listening to the different sounds produced by individual valves Valve location Sounds heard Valve location Sounds heard Valve location Sounds heard
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-18b Heart Sounds Semilunar valves close AV valves open AV valves close “Dubb”“Lubb” The relationship between heart sounds and key events in the cardiac cycle Heart sounds Pressure (mmHg) Aorta Semilunar valves open Left ventricle Left atrium S1 S4S4 S2 S3
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Cardiodynamics • The movement and force generated by cardiac contractions • End-diastolic volume (EDV) • End-systolic volume (ESV) • Stroke volume (SV) • SV = EDV – ESV • Ejection fraction • The percentage of EDV represented by SV
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-19 A Simple Model of Stroke Volume Filling Ventricular diastole End-diastolic volume (EDV) Pumping Ventricular systole Stroke volume End-systolic volume (ESV) Start
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-19 A Simple Model of Stroke Volume Filling Ventricular diastole When the pump handle is raised, pressure within the cylinder decreases, and water enters through a one-way valve. This corresponds to passive filling during ventricular diastole. Start
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-19 A Simple Model of Stroke Volume At the start of the pumping cycle, the amount of water in the cylinder corresponds to the amount of blood in a ventricle at the end of ventricular diastole. This amount is known as the end-diastolic volume (EDV). End-diastolic volume (EDV)
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-19 A Simple Model of Stroke Volume Pumping As the pump handle is pushed down, water is forced out of the cylinder. This cor- responds to the period of ventricular ejection. Ventricular systole
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-19 A Simple Model of Stroke Volume When the handle is depressed as far as it will go, some water will remain in the cylinder. That amount corresponds to the end-systolic volume (ESV) remaining in the ventricle at the end of ventricular systole. The amount of water pumped out corresponds to the stroke volume of the heart; the stroke volume is the difference between the EDV and the ESV. Stroke volume End-systolic volume (ESV)
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Cardiac Output (CO) • The volume pumped by left ventricle in 1 minute • CO = HR × SV • CO = cardiac output (mL/min) • HR = heart rate (beats/min) • SV = stroke volume (mL/beat)
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Factors Affecting Cardiac Output • Cardiac output • Adjusted by changes in heart rate or stroke volume • Heart rate • Adjusted by autonomic nervous system or hormones • Stroke volume • Adjusted by changing EDV or ESV
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-20 Factors Affecting Cardiac Output End-systolic volume End-diastolic volume Hormones Autonomic innervation STROKE VOLUME (SV) = EDV – ESVHEART RATE (HR) CARDIAC OUTPUT (CO) = HR × SV Factors Affecting Heart Rate (HR) Factors Affecting Stroke Volume (SV)
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Autonomic Innervation • Cardiac plexuses innervate heart • Vagus nerves (N X) carry parasympathetic preganglionic fibers to small ganglia in cardiac plexus • Cardiac centers of medulla oblongata • Cardioacceleratory center controls sympathetic neurons (increases heart rate) • Cardioinhibitory center controls parasympathetic neurons (slows heart rate)
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Autonomic Innervation • Cardiac reflexes • Cardiac centers monitor: • Blood pressure (baroreceptors) • Arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide levels (chemoreceptors) • Cardiac centers adjust cardiac activity • Autonomic tone • Dual innervation maintains resting tone by releasing ACh and NE • Fine adjustments meet needs of other systems
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-21 Autonomic Innervation of the Heart Cardioinhibitory center Cardioacceleratory center Vagal nucleus Medulla oblongata Vagus (N X) Spinal cord Parasympathetic Parasympathetic preganglionic fiber Synapses in cardiac plexus Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers Cardiac nerve Sympathetic postganglionic fiber Sympathetic preganglionic fiber Sympathetic ganglia (cervical ganglia and superior thoracic ganglia [T1–T4]) Sympathetic
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Effects on the SA Node • Membrane potential of pacemaker cells • Lower than other cardiac cells • Rate of spontaneous depolarization depends on: • Resting membrane potential • Rate of depolarization
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-22a Autonomic Regulation of Pacemaker Function Prepotential (spontaneous depolarization) Normal (resting) Membrane potential (mV) Threshold Heart rate: 75 bpm Pacemaker cells have membrane potentials closer to threshold than those of other cardiac muscle cells (–60 mV versus –90 mV). Their plasma membranes undergo spontaneous depolarization to threshold, producing action potentials at a frequency determined by (1) the resting-membrane potential and (2) the rate of depolarization.
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Effects on the SA Node • Sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation • Greatest at SA node (heart rate) • ACh (parasympathetic stimulation) • Slows the heart • NE (sympathetic stimulation) • Speeds the heart
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-22b Autonomic Regulation of Pacemaker Function Parasympathetic stimulation releases ACh, which extends repolarization and decreases the rate of spontaneous depolarization. The heart rate slows. Slower depolarization Hyperpolarization Parasympathetic stimulation Heart rate: 40 bpm Membrane potential (mV) Threshold
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-22c Autonomic Regulation of Pacemaker Function Sympathetic stimulation releases NE, which shortens repolarization and accelerates the rate of spontaneous depolarization. As a result, the heart rate increases. Time (sec) More rapid depolarization Reduced repolarization Sympathetic stimulation Heart rate: 120 bpm Membrane potential (mV) Threshold
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Atrial Reflex • Also called Bainbridge reflex • Adjusts heart rate in response to venous return • Stretch receptors in right atrium • Trigger increase in heart rate • Through increased sympathetic activity
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Hormonal Effects on Heart Rate • Increase heart rate (by sympathetic stimulation of SA node) • Epinephrine (E) • Norepinephrine (NE) • Thyroid hormone
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Factors Affecting the Stroke Volume • The EDV amount of blood a ventricle contains at the end of diastole • Filling time • Duration of ventricular diastole • Venous return • Rate of blood flow during ventricular diastole
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Preload • The degree of ventricular stretching during ventricular diastole • Directly proportional to EDV • Affects ability of muscle cells to produce tension
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • The EDV and Stroke Volume • At rest • EDV is low • Myocardium stretches less • Stroke volume is low • With exercise • EDV increases • Myocardium stretches more • Stroke volume increases
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • The Frank–Starling Principle • As EDV increases, stroke volume increases • Physical Limits • Ventricular expansion is limited by: • Myocardial connective tissue • The cardiac (fibrous) skeleton • The pericardial sac
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • End-Systolic Volume (ESV) • Is the amount of blood that remains in the ventricle at the end of ventricular systole
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Three Factors That Affect ESV 1. Preload • Ventricular stretching during diastole 1. Contractility • Force produced during contraction, at a given preload 1. Afterload • Tension the ventricle produces to open the semilunar valve and eject blood
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Contractility • Is affected by: • Autonomic activity • Hormones
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Effects of Autonomic Activity on Contractility • Sympathetic stimulation • NE released by postganglionic fibers of cardiac nerves • Epinephrine and NE released by adrenal medullae • Causes ventricles to contract with more force • Increases ejection fraction and decreases ESV
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Effects of Autonomic Activity on Contractility • Parasympathetic activity • Acetylcholine released by vagus nerves • Reduces force of cardiac contractions
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Hormones • Many hormones affect heart contraction • Pharmaceutical drugs mimic hormone actions • Stimulate or block beta receptors • Affect calcium ions (e.g., calcium channel blockers)
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Afterload • Is increased by any factor that restricts arterial blood flow • As afterload increases, stroke volume decreases
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-23 Factors Affecting Stroke Volume Preload Factors Affecting Stroke Volume (SV) Venous return (VR) VR = EDV FT = EDV Filling time (FT) Increased by sympathetic stimulation Decreased by parasympathetic stimulation Increased by E, NE, glucagon, thyroid hormones Contractility (Cont) of muscle cells Cont = ESV Increased by vasoconstriction Decreased by vasodilation Afterload (AL) AL = ESVEnd-systolic volume (ESV) End-diastolic volume (EDV) STROKE VOLUME (SV) ESV = SV VR = EDV FT = EDV Cont = ESV AL = ESV ESV = SV EDV = SV EDV = SV
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Summary: The Control of Cardiac Output • Heart Rate Control Factors • Autonomic nervous system • Sympathetic and parasympathetic • Circulating hormones • Venous return and stretch receptors
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Summary: The Control of Cardiac Output • Stroke Volume Control Factors • EDV • Filling time, and rate of venous return • ESV • Preload, contractility, afterload
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • Cardiac Reserve • The difference between resting and maximal cardiac output
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Education, Inc. 20-4 Cardiodynamics • The Heart and Cardiovascular System • Cardiovascular regulation • Ensures adequate circulation to body tissues • Cardiovascular centers • Control heart and peripheral blood vessels • Cardiovascular system responds to: • Changing activity patterns • Circulatory emergencies
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Education, Inc. Figure 20-24 A Summary of the Factors Affecting Cardiac Output Hormones Factors affecting heart fate (HR) Factors affecting stroke volume (SV) CARDIAC OUTPUT (CO) = HR × SV STROKE VOLUME (SV) = EDV – ESVHEART RATE (HR) Afterload End-systolic volume End-diastolic volume Vasodilation or vasoconstriction ContractilityPreload HormonesAutonomic innervation Filling time Venous return Changes in peripheral circulation Blood volume Skeletal muscle activity Autonomic innervation Atrial reflex
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