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A Journey Into the Emotions of Software Developers
A Journey Into the Emotions of Software Developers
Localization
1.
Lecture on Sensor
Networks Historical Motivation a. Classification Development No positions no distances Copyright (c) 2005 Dr. Thomas Haenselmann (University of Mannheim, Germany). Simple global Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document positioning under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; Some positions with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. with/without dist. A copy of the license is included on the last pages entitled quot;GNU No positions Free Documentation Licensequot;. known dist. Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of time
2.
Localization: Classification
Motivation a. Classification Motivation No positions Standard GPS (Global Positioning System) receivers are not yet options for sensor nodes no distances since they are much too expensive and large. For static nodes the positioning is also only Simple global needed in the beginning. But in many cases the usefulness of measurements is increased if positioning their location is known. This makes positioning and localization essential, however not trivial. Some positions with/without dist. What is the difference between positioning and localization? No positions Positioning: Determination of global world-coordinates known dist. Localization: Determination of relative coordinates Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of
3.
Localization: Classification
Motivation a. Classification Classification No positions There are two dimensions: Nodes are position aware/unaware and nodes can/can not no distances determine the distance to a neighbor. Simple global positioning Some nodes know yes no Distance their position Some positions to neighboring with/without dist. senders known No positions known dist. complete topology complete topology, Improved global yes but coordinate positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim in world coordinates system only local ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of rough positioning only abstract within the connectivity no neighborhood matrix
4.
Localization: Unknown positions
and distances Motivation a. Classification No positioned node, no distance estimate No positions The single nodes do not know their global position. They can not estimate the distance of no distances the neighbors within their radio range. In this case, only the creation of an adjacency matrix Simple global is possible. positioning Some positions Node A Node B Node C Node D Node E with/without dist. Node A 1 1 No positions 1 1 1 1 known dist. Node B Node C 1 1 Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim Node D 1 1 Node E 1 1 1 ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of C A B E D
5.
Localization: Known positions
without distances Motivation a. Classification Simple global positioning No positions Create the average of the coordinates of the neighboring nodes within the range of receiver no distances n. Simple global Note: If the senders span a convex polygon, the median of the coordinates is the center of positioning mass of the polygon. Some positions with/without dist. p2 No positions 1 known dist. n= ∣P∣ ∑∀p ∈P p i i p3 p1 Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim n ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of p4 p5
6.
Localization: Known positions
and distances Motivation a. Classification Simple global positioning No positions Embedded systems in cars or cellular phones and PDAs could be nodes of a network, even no distances though they may have been designed for other tasks. They often have better energy sources Simple global or are charged regularly. positioning Solution for static nodes: Sensor networks could use these embedded systems as location Some positions servers. Alternatively, among a huge number of cheap sensors, some expensive ones could be with/without dist. mixed supporting GPS. Then the simple sensors could localize themselves using the complex ones. The GPS supporting nodes only need to be alive for a short period or must be available No positions in the neighborhood at least for a while until the fixed nodes have determined their position. known dist. Improved global Or some of the simple nodes could be exposed manually. Before being dropped a human positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim operator has to obtain the exact coordinates e.g. using GPS. These manually positioned nodes can serve as location server for the rest of the network, at the expense of a greater ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of initialization effort. Solution for moving nodes (e.g. attached to animals, in the sea etc.): as common in nautics, static public beacons could be used.
7.
Localization: Known positions
and distances Motivation a. Classification Simple global positioning No positions Basically three nodes are enough to calculate the position of a new node, provided that the no distances mutual distances are known. The distances of the nodes among each other can be estimated Simple global e.g. via the strength of the incoming radio signal, which the receiving node detects. positioning Some positions with/without dist. In 3D three nodes are sufficient for positioning No positions if we can assume that the i known dist. position must be on the Improved global surface of the sphere. j positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim d n ,i d n ,j ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of n
8.
Localization: Known positions
and distances Motivation a. Classification Simple global positioning No positions Two nodes i, j are given with the positions pi and pj respectively. The circle around pi through no distances the searched node n corresponds to the distance di,n (analog for node j). In order to reach n, Simple global the positions s and and the distance ds,n as well as the perpendicular h to g are needed (di,j positioning corresponds to the length of g). In order to be able to commit oneself to one of the two Some positions nodes, a third neighbor or other kinds of neighborhood information is needed. with/without dist. Sketch No positions n' known dist. Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim ri pi rj ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of h g d i, ri s pj rj j d n ,i d n ,j (0,0) x (di,j,0) n
9.
Localization: Known positions
and distances Motivation a. Classification Simple global positioning No positions Points on circle around (0,0): no distances Simple global x y = r 2 2 2 i positioning Some positions Points on circle around (d,0): with/without dist. No positions x − d i , j y = r 2 2 2 j known dist. Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim Calculation of the shared x-coordinate by insertion: x − d i , j r i − x = r j 2 2 2 2 ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of x −2 di , j x d i , j ri − x = r j 2 2 2 2 2 d i , j− r j r i 2 2 2 x= 2 di , j
10.
Localization: Known positions
and distances Motivation a. Classification Simple global positioning No positions pi and pj denote the coordinates of the nodes i and j. The point s in the lenticular no distances intersection of the two circles results from: Simple global positioning s= pi x p j − p i Some positions with/without dist. The perpendicular h to g is unique in 2D except for the yet undetermined sign: No positions known dist. =± −g.y * ± 1 h= h h and the normalized lot to length 1 respectively g.x ∣h ∣ Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim Test: ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of g.x g.x g.y h= g.y ± −g.y g.x =±−g.x×g.y g.y ×g.x = 0
11.
Localization: Known positions
and distances Motivation a. Classification Simple global positioning No positions * We now obtain two candidates n and n' from the product +/- ds,n h together with the point no distances s. The distance ds,n between s and n results from the right triangle between pi, s and n. Simple global positioning In the last step we have to find out, which one of the alternatives n or n' is the true location. Usually this can be checked via a simple comparison with another neighboring node, only by Some positions checking the mutual “visibility”. Among the two alternatives for n, we are only interested in with/without dist. the one for which all neighbors are within the radio range. No positions known dist. In 3D the positioning works analog, but with the help of three nodes with known coordinates. In the satellite based positioning the discrimination of cases is not necessary if it Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim can be assumed that the position has to be on top of the earth (and not in space). ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of
12.
Localization: Known positions
without distances Motivation a. Classification Some known positions with/without distance measurements No positions At a first view only the consideration of the neighbors with known coordinates is useful. At a no distances closer look we see that the reachability of fuzzy positioned neighbors can reduce the area of Simple global uncertainty as well. If node beta is at the northern end of its valid area, it still cuts the area positioning of node alpha, although the actual position of beta is unknown. Some positions with/without dist. shared Area of both A-nodes No positions area of both and of the Beta-node known dist. A-nodes Improved global A1 A2 A1 A2 positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of B1 B2 B1 B2
13.
Localization: Known positions
with distances Motivation a. Classification Some known positions with/without distance measurements No positions The problem of the positioning of nodes in a set of positioned and not yet positioned nodes no distances can be expressed as optimization problem as follows. Simple global positioning argmin ∀ u 1, u2,... ,u k ∑∀d ∣∥ui−x k∥2−di, k∣ i, k Some positions with/without dist. No positions known dist. ui indicates the unknown coordinate of a node i, pj the determined coordinate of a positioned u1 Improved global positioning p1 Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim node j. X indicates a node from the set union of ? both nodes. u3 p3 ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of dij denotes the distance between two nodes i and ? j, which can be derived e.g. from the field force u2 of the received signal. p4 ? p2 p5
14.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Motivation No positions The following approach is based on the work of Capkun, Hamdi and Hubaux no distances „GPS-free positioning in mobile ad-hoc networks“ Simple global It establishes a global coordinate system (CS) of the network based on mutual distance positioning measurements. A central node is picked as origin of the CS. Some positions with/without dist. Every node has to generate its own local coordinate system first, in which only its direct neighbors are included. What follows is the consolidation of the many local CS to a single No positions global one. However, we can not determine how this CS is positioned in the real world and known dist. how it is rotated, because all calculations based on mutual distances are quot;self-reliantquot; and no Improved global anchorage with world coordinates exists. positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim If, however, the global (and relative) CS is detected, two globally localized nodes suffice to ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of interpret all other nodes in world coordinates.
15.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Requirement No positions Distances between the nodes can be derived from... no distances Simple global (a) the strength of the received signal positioning (b) the round-trip time of a beacon (c) sending of acoustic signals Some positions Set N of all with/without dist. nodes in the No positions sensor network known dist. Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of Local View Set (LVS): Set Ki of neighboring nodes of the node i (or 1-Hop neighborhood) dij node i no de dij = distance between nodes j i and j
16.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Determination of a local coordinate system (1) No positions (1) Every node determines its local neighbor, resulting in the 1-hop neighborhood. no distances A direct radio contact exists between them. Simple global (2) Every node sends the distance vector table from (1) to all its neighbors. Every node positioning knows... Some positions with/without dist. - its 1-hop and 2-hop neighborhood - the distance of the direct neighbors No positions - some distances of its direct neighbors among known dist. each other, but not all of them! Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim node a ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of Node “a” knows e.g. its neighbor no de “r”. It also informs node i about r that. However, node a and b do not know each other. That is why they can not inform node i about node i dpq their distance. Consequence: i knows only some of the distances among its direct neighbors b de no
17.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Determination of a local coordinate system (2) No positions (3) In the beginning, every node determines a local coordinate system so that is in no distances the origin itself. Simple global positioning (4) A node p from the LVS is chosen, which defines the direction of the x-axis. Thereby the actual position of the node (in world coordinates) is irrelevant. So by Some positions definition node p is now on the x-axis with the coordinates (dip,0). with/without dist. No positions Another node q is chosen, known dist. which helps defining the y-axis. As the y-axis is already defined q x =d iq c o s Improved global positioning q Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim as the perpendicular on the x- axis in 2D, q's task is only to q y =d iq s i n determine the direction of the ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of axis. iq d In order to be able to actually express q in coordinates, the p angle gamma is missing. i x= 0 d ip Note: At the moment q does p x =d ip nothing more than implicitly defining the direction of the y- i y= 0 p y= 0 axis.
18.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Determination of a local coordinate system (3) No positions no distances Determine node q geometrically: Simple global node q positioning We get q by intersecting the two circles Some positions with/without dist. d pq around node i with radius diq and iq d No positions around node p with Radius dpq. known dist. For the calculation of the node i d ip node p Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim coordinates from node q the angle gamma (see previous page) and the ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of distance diq suffice. This can be derived from the so-called cosine- rules.
19.
Localization: Geometric correlations
Motivation a. Classification Cosine Rule - slide No positions In each version an angle and the length of the two involved sides of a triangle is needed. no distances Hence the length of the side lying opposite to the vertex can be calculated. Simple global positioning 2 2 2 b Some positions a =b c −2bc ×cos A A with/without dist. 2 2 2 b =a c −2ac×cos B C No positions c known dist. 2 2 2 B a c =a b −2ab×cosC Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of Example: a=4,3 b2 =4,32 62−2×4,3×6×cos 103 c=6 b= 4,3 6 −2×4,3×6×cos103 2 2 B=103° b= ?
20.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Determination of a local coordinate system (3) No positions no distances Simple global 2 2 2 d =d d −2d ip d iq cos pq ip iq node q positioning Some positions 2 2 2 2d ip d iq cos =d d −d ip iq pq with/without dist. d pq No positions iq d 2 2 2 d d −d ip iq pq known dist. =arccos Improved global 2d ip d iq node i d ip positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim node p ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of
21.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Determination of a local coordinate system (3): embedding of the visible nodes No positions no distances In order to determine another node j, it Simple global seems we only need the nodes p and i. But node q positioning mutual distances of the nodes provide no j? information about the side on which node j Some positions is located. with/without dist. No positions sin known dist. jx =dij c o s d ip node p node i Improved global −sin j y =± 1d ij s i n positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim d p dj ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of ij d2 d 2 −d 2 ij ip jp =arccos node j 2d ij d ip
22.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Determination of a local coordinate system (3): embedding of the visible nodes No positions no distances Whether node j is above or below the x-axis Case: beta = alpha+gamma Simple global of the local coordinate system defined by i node q j? positioning and p can be determined by analyzing the composition of angle beta: Some positions with/without dist. No positions node p node i Case: beta = gamma-alpha known dist. d ip Improved global node q node j d positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim p dj ij j ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of di node j node p node i d ip ≈∣∣⇒ jy =−d ij s i n p dj j? ≈∣−∣⇒ jy =d ij s i n
23.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Consolidation of the coordinate systems (4) No positions A node k is always in the origin (0,0) of its own local coordinate system. no distances All nodes within its local view set (LVSk) are interpreted in relation to k's position. K's Simple global world coordinates are (and remain) unknown. positioning However, k is also interpreted by the other nodes in the context of their coordinate Some positions systems. In the illustration at the bottom k is in i's LVS, thus it has a fixed position with/without dist. based on i's coordinate system. Furthermore with regard to j's coordinate system k No positions has yet another position (though different to the position based on i). known dist. Now we have to find a way to consolidate the local coordinate Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim systems to a unique global one of the network. Here all nodes shall be interpreted with respect to node i. For that purpose the CS have to be rectified. They are rectified, ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of k de if their axes point into the same direction. no no de Case 1: The rectification includes a rotation i Case 2: The rectification includes a mirroring (often in addition to a rotation) j node
24.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Consolidation of the coordinate systems (4): 1. case (adjusting the direction) No positions All nodes in i's LVS are already contained in the CS of y x no distances the network (with center i). We will now determine Simple global the coordinates of the 2-hop neighborhood which can not be seen directly from i (but e.g. from k). positioning y Therefore the other local CS have to be adjusted so node k Some positions that their children can also be included into the with/without dist. global CS. No positions All coordinates seen by node k but not by i have to − x known dist. be rotated to fit into i's CS. Therefore the following node i Improved global operation has to be applied: positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim Given a coordinate q in the CS of k: Note: The proceeding on the left is based on the paper of Capkun et al. If node k knows ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of either node i and the direction of i's x-axis it 1) Rotate q by − degrees =1 8 0 ° could also perform only one rotation (about 2) Add the coordinate of node k as seen by i. the angle gamma enclosed between k's x-axis and i's x-axis. Note that in the sketch on the left a coordinate based on the view from node i is rotated back into the CS of k (any ideas for a better sketch?). What we actually want to do and what is described above is the opposite transformation from the view of k into the view of i.
25.
Localization: Known distances
without positions Motivation a. Classification Consolidation of the coordinate systems (4): 2. case (mirroring of an axis) No positions The single rotation seen on the previous slide does not suffice. Sometimes the x-axis no distances might be aligned with the other CS but the y-axis still points into the wrong direction. Simple global positioning After the rotation as shown on the right hand Some positions side the x-axis is aligned with the x-axis of node y with/without dist. i however, the y-axis still points into the wrong direction. No positions known dist. In this case the y-axis has to be mirrored into y node k the opposite direction. This means for the x Improved global x positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim coordinates of the nodes in the LVS of node k that their y-components have to be multiplied by (-1). ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of x How do we get to know that this situation occured? y node i If the dot product of k's x-axis and i's x-axis yields to same sign as the dot product of the two known y-axes, no mirroring is necessary.
26.
Remember: projections and
coordinate systems Motivation a. Classification Sine- Cosine- Rotation- slide No positions no distances Simple global positioning Some positions with/without dist. No positions known dist. c o s s i n Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim −s i n c o s c o s −s i n ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of s i n c o s
27.
Localization: Improved Localization
Motivation a. Classification Improved global positioning No positions The position pn of node n is unknown. In n's LVS are several nodes (five in the Figure) with no distances known positions. Now we want a) to include all nodes in the position calculation for n and Simple global b) within the position calculation to outweigh the influence of the nodes, which can estimate n's positioning position best. As the field strength of a received signal degrades by the square of the distance, the distance to the closest nodes can be estimated best. Some positions with/without dist. Given No positions known dist. n: new node with unknown position 1 Improved global 1-5: nodes with known position (in general index k) positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim 5 a, b: more nodes, not on the convex hull a ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of They are ignored. b d2, n pk: (global) position of node k 2 n dk,n: distance between node k and n. Estimated by the field strength of the incoming signal. 4 Searched 3 p n: position of node n
28.
Localization: Improved Localization
Motivation a. Classification Improved global positioning No positions The position pn shall be calculated as convex combination of the neighboring and yet no distances localized nodes p1,..., p5. Question: How do we have to choose the weights lk so that a Simple global preferably optimal quot;mixquot; of the known positions is obtained which best approximates the real positioning position of n? Some positions Principle: If node n converges against with/without dist. e.g. the position of node 3 (see the 3 = 1 5 4 No positions Figure), then p3 should have an 1 known dist. increasing influence on the estimated position of n . Improved global 5 positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim 5 ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of K 1 p n =∑ k = 1 l k p k 4 K 2 n ∑k = 1 l k = 1 2 3 4 3
29.
Localization: Improved Localization
Motivation a. Classification Improved global positioning No positions The basis for the calculation of the weights lk are the areas of the triangles, which are no distances spanned by the yet unlocalized node n and respectively two neighboring localized nodes. Simple global positioning k = d k , k 1 d k , n d k1 , n d k , n d k 1 , n − d k , k 1 d k1 , n d k , k 1− d k , n d k , k 1 d k , n − d k1 , n Some positions with/without dist. The areas alphak can be calculated only using the side lengths of the triangles. 3 = 1 5 4 No positions 1 known dist. The actual weight of a node position pk is Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim composed of the product of almost every triangle. 5 ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of K 1 5 ∏i = 1 i 4 k= 2 n k− 1 k 2 3 4 Only the two triangles that border at the straight line between node n and k (nodes 3 on the right Figure) are excluded. 3
30.
Localization: Improved Localization
Motivation a. Classification Improved global positioning No positions Why have the two areas alpha2 and alpha3 no influence on the weight of node 3, although no distances those areas are closest to node 3? Simple global positioning Answer: if n converges to node 3 in the example at the bottom, the weight p3 will converge against the weight of the complete polygon. As a result, the position p3 has a growing Some positions influence on the calculation of the position pn. The weights of the other nodes however, with/without dist. converge increasingly against zero. No positions 1 3 = 1 5 4 known dist. As node n approaches node 3, its position shall also dominate the estimate of pn. Improved global 5 positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim At the same time the influence of the remaining nodes should vanish. 5 ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of The pi can not be used directly as weights. 1 You have to normalize before, so that the sum of the weights is actually 1 2 4 (elsewise pn would not be within the polygon). n 2 4 3 3
31.
Localization: Improved Localization
Motivation a. Classification Improved global positioning No positions The standardization of the weights pi to 1 in order to serve the convex combination is done no distances here: Simple global k positioning l k=∑ K i i= 1 Some positions with/without dist. In doing so the ratio of the weights among one another is not changed. Only the sum of the l-values is 1, the sum of the pi-values can be arbitrary. Now we want to determine the No positions positions pk weighted by the l-values. The result will be the yet unknown position of node n: known dist. Improved global positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim K p n =∑ k= 1 l k p k ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of For didactic reasons it has been omitted so fast that the simple convex combination above does not hold true (see the example program). So instead of simply summing up the positions of the nodes pk, each of these nodes has to estimate the real position of n. Then the final position does no more consist of the weighted sum of the node's positions themselves (as in the equation above), but of the estimates the nodes calculate.
32.
Localization: Improved Localization
Motivation a. Classification Improved global positioning No positions As shown in the beginning of the chapter two nodes are enough to calculate two candidates no distances for the position of a third node. Being only interested in the candidates inside of the Simple global polygon, the candidate outside can be excluded easily. positioning Here, node k shall estimate the position of node n. For that purpose it needs another node. Some positions Therefore it could choose its neighbor k-1 or k+1. It is even better to include both neighbors with/without dist. in the calculation of the position as depicted below. In doing so, k draws a circle around itself, which is touching nodes n (with radius dn,k) (~ above d is a hint that d is only an No positions known dist. estimate of the distance). Nodes (k-1) and (k+1) draw such circles as well. If all estimations of distance d were exact, only one intersection would arise at the exact position of n. Exact Improved global distances can hardly be expected so that two intersections s1 and s2 evolve as shown below. positioning Computer Science IV – University of Mannheim ©Thomas Haenselmann – Department of Their center is considered a suggestion from node k for the d n,k−1 position of n and is weighted with the weight lk. All other nodes d n,k1 s1 k−1 n n perform the same calculation with their neighbors and weight their d n,k k1 p nk s2 result with their weight l, so that in the end an optimized result for k the position of n is obtained.
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