Ecology has a complex origin dating back to ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle who made early observations of natural history. Modern ecology emerged in the late 19th century as a more rigorous science. Key figures included Ernst Haeckel who coined the term "ecology" and Charles Darwin whose theory of evolution was a cornerstone of ecological thought. Ecology is defined as the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment, and includes variables like species distribution, abundance, and changing states within ecosystems. It is a multidisciplinary field with applications in conservation, natural resource management, and human social systems.

1. ECOLOGY
History
Ecology has a complex origin due in large part to its interdisciplinary nature
Ancient philosophers of Greece, including Hippocrates and Aristotle were among
the first to record their observations on natural history.
Philosophers in ancient Greece viewed life as a static element that did not require
an understanding of adaptation, a modern cornerstone of ecological theory. Topics
more familiar in the modern context, including food chains, population regulation,
and productivity, did not develop until the 1700s through the published works of
microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) and botanist Richard Bradley
(1688?-1732). Biogeographer Alexander von Humbolt (1769–1859) was another
early pioneer in ecological thinking and was among the first to recognize
ecological gradients.
In the early 20th century, ecology was an analytical form of natural history.
Following in the traditions of Aristotle, the descriptive nature of natural history
examined the interaction of organisms with both their environment and their
community.
Natural historians, including James Hutton and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, contributed
significant works that laid the foundations of the modern ecological sciences.
The term "ecology" (German: Oekologie) is of a more recent origin and was first
coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in his book Generelle Morphologie
der Organismen (1866). Haeckel was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a
professor of comparative anatomy.
By ecology we mean the body of knowledge concerning the economy of nature-the
investigation of the total relations of the animal both to its inorganic and its organic
environment; including, above all, its friendly and inimical relations with those
animals and plants with which it comes directly or indirectly into contact-in a
word, ecology is the study of all those complex interrelations referred to by Darwin
as the conditions of the struggle of existence.
Ernst Haeckel (left) and Eugenius Warming (right), two founders of ecology.
Opinions differ on who was the founder of modern ecological theory. Some mark

2. Haeckel's definition as the beginning, others say it was Eugenius Warming with the
writing of ecology of Plants: An Introduction to the Study of Plant Communities
(1895).
Ecology may also be thought to have begun with Carl Linnaeus' research principals
on the economy of nature that matured in the early 18th century He founded an
early branch of ecological study he called the economy of nature.
In the broader contributions to the historical development of the ecological
sciences, Aristotle is considered one of the earliest naturalists who had an
influential role in the philosophical development of ecological sciences. One of
Aristotle's students, Theophrastus, made ecological observations about plants and
posited a philosophical stance about the autonomous relations between plants and
their environment that is more in line with modern ecological thought. Both
Aristotle and Theophrastus made extensive observations on plant and animal
migrations, biogeography, physiology, and their habits in what might be
considered an analog of the modern ecological niche.
From Aristotle to Darwin the natural world was predominantly considered static
and unchanged since its original creation. Prior to The Origin of Species there was
little appreciation or understanding of the dynamic and reciprocal relations
between organisms, their adaptations and their modifications to the environment.
While Charles Darwin is most notable for his treatise on evolution, he is also one
of the founders of soil ecology
INTRODUCTION
Ecology is a sub-discipline of biology the study of life. The word "ecology"
("Ökologie") was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel (1834–
1919). Ancient philosophers of Greece, including Hippocrates and Aristotle, were
among the earliest to record observations and notes on the natural history of plants
and animals. Modern ecology branched out of natural history and matured into a
more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Charles Darwin's evolutionary
treatise including the concept of adaptation, as it was introduced in 1859, is a
pivotal cornerstone in modern ecological theory. Ecology is not synonymous with
environment, environmentalism, natural history or environmental science. It is
closely related to physiology, evolutionary biology, genetics and ethology.

3. Ecology (from Greek: οἶ κος, "house"; -λογία, "study of") is the scientific study of
the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural
environment.
Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount
(biomass), number, and changing states of organisms within and among
ecosystems.
Ecosystems are hierarchical systems that are organized into a graded series of
regularly interacting and semi-independent parts (e.g., species) that aggregate into
higher orders of complex integrated wholes (e.g., communities). Ecosystems are
sustained by the biodiversity within them. Biodiversity is the full-scale of life and
its processes, including genes, species and ecosystems forming lineages that
integrate into a complex and regenerative spatial arrangement of types, forms, and
interactions. Ecosystems create biophysical feedback mechanisms between living
(biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components of the planet. These feedback loops
regulate and sustain local communities, continental climate systems, and global
biogeochemical cycles.
An understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function is an important
focus area in ecological studies. Ecologists seek to explain:
Life processes and adaptations
Distribution and abundance of organisms
The movement of materials and energy through living communities
The succession development of ecosystems, and
The abundance and distribution of biodiversity in context of the
environment.
Ecology is a human science as well. There are many practical applications of
ecology in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource
management (agriculture, forestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology),
community health, economics, basic and applied science and human social
interaction (human ecology). Ecosystems sustain every life-supporting function on
the planet, including climate regulation, water filtration, soil formation
(pedogenesis), food, fibers, medicines, erosion control, and many other natural
features of scientific, historical or spiritual value.
DEFINITION
ACCORDING TO TAYLOR

4. ‗‘Ecology is the science of study of all the relation of all organism to all organism
to all their environment .‘‘
ACCORDING TO ODUM
‗‘Ecology is the study of structure and function of nature‘‘.
ACCORDING TO PATRIDES
―Ecology is the study of environmental interaction which control the welfare of
living thing regulating there distribution ,abundance and evolution .‖
These definition explain that ecology as a science studies –
The component of nature which include different forms of life ,and there
physical and chemical environment
The process of interaction among different form of life and non living thing
How different form of life can live in harmonious relation to there
surrounding
How different form of life and there surrounding can be controlled and
regulated to maintain there health and welfare .
PRINCIPAL OF ECOLOGY
 Everything is related to everything else .It means that all the living
organism and the non-living thing in an ecosystem are interrelated
 Everything must go somewhere –it means the organism excretion or waste
is taken up by another organism as food .This helps in removal of waste
excreted by various forms of life from the environment to quit an extent .
 Nature know best –it means that means that changes about by human being
in any natural system do not always improve the system .
 In order to preserve the nature anything which is removed from there
nature by human effort must be replaced and anything which is added to it
must be removed.

5. HIERARCHICAL ECOLOGY
 System behaviours must first be arrayed into levels of organization.
Behaviors corresponding to higher levels occur at slow rates. Conversely, lower
organizational levels exhibit rapid rates. For example, individual tree leaves
respond rapidly to momentary changes in light intensity, CO2 concentration, and
the like. The growth of the tree responds more slowly and integrates these short-
term changes
 To structure the study of ecology into a manageable framework of
understanding, the biological world is conceptually organized as a nested
hierarchy of organization, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to
organs, to organisms, to species and up to the level of the biosphere.
 The main areas of concerns of ecology are from population to biosphere.
Protoplasm Cell Tissues Organ Organ Organism
system
Biosphere Ecosystem Communities Population
POPULATION: From Ecological point of view, population refers to as Group of
individuals of any kind of organism living together in a particular locality. For
example number of pigeons or sparrows or dogs or human beings living together in
a particular place.
 The population is the unit of analysis in population ecology. A population
consists of individuals of the same species that live, interact and migrate
through the same niche and habitat. A primary law of population ecology is
the Malthusian growth model. This law states that:
"...a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the
environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains
constant”
Simplified population models usually start with four variables
including death, birth, immigration, and emigration.
Mathematical models are used to calculate changes in population
demographics using a null model. A null model is used as a null hypothesis

6. for statistical testing. The null hypothesis states that random processes create
observed patterns. Alternatively the patterns differ significantly from the
random model and require further explanation. Models can be
mathematically complex where "...several competing hypotheses are
simultaneously confronted with the data." An example of an introductory
population model describes a closed population, such as on an island, where
immigration and emigration does not take place. In these island models the
rate of population change is described by:

 where N is the total number of individuals in the population, B is the number
of births, D is the number of deaths, b and d are the per capita rates of birth
and death respectively, and r is the per capita rate of population change. This
formula can be read out as the rate of change in the population (dN/dT) is
equal to births minus deaths (B – D).
COMMUNITY: In the ecological sense community refers to association of
various populations in a particular locality. This is also referred to as biotic
community.
ECOSYSTEM: An ecosystem is formed when the community (various
types of populations) and the non-living environment interact and function
together. Ecosystem is a unit of study of ecology.
BOISPHERE: Biosphere refers to the world of living things and is
comprised of part of earth (The lithosphere), a thin layer of air above the
surface of earth (Atmosphere) and water (hydrosphere).
OTHER RELATED TERMS:
BIODIVERSITY
 Biodiversity is the variety of life and its processes. It includes the variety of
living organisms, the genetic differences among them, the communities and
ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and evolutionary
processes that keep them functioning, yet ever changing and adapting

7.  Biodiversity (an abbreviation of biological diversity) describes the diversity
of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological
organization. Biodiversity means different things to different people and
there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its
complex organization.
 Biodiversity includes species diversity, ecosystem diversity, genetic diversity
and the complex processes operating at and among these respective levels.
 Biodiversity plays an important role in ecological health as much as it does
for human health.
Preventing or prioritizing species extinctions is one way to preserve biodiversity,
but populations, the genetic diversity within them and ecological processes, such as
migration, are being threatened on global scales and disappearing rapidly as well.
Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches
and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity. Populations
and species migration, for example, are more sensitive indicators of ecosystem
services that sustain and contribute natural capital toward the well-being of
humanity. An understanding of biodiversity has practical application for
ecosystem-based conservation planners as they make ecologically responsible
decisions in management recommendations to consultant firms, governments and
industry.
HABITAT
 The habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is
known to occur and the type of community that is formed as a result. More
specifically, "habitats can be defined as regions in environmental space
that are composed of multiple dimensions, each representing a biotic or
abiotic environmental variable; that is, any component or characteristic of
the environment related directly (e.g. forage biomass and quality) or
indirectly (e.g. elevation) to the use of a location by the animal.
 For example, the habitat might refer to an aquatic or terrestrial environment
that can be further categorized as montane or alpine ecosystems
 Biotope and habitat are sometimes used interchangeably, but the former
applies to a communities environment, whereas the latter applies to a
species' environment.

8. BIOME
 Biomes are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth's
ecosystems mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation.
Different researchers have applied different methods to define continental
boundaries of biomes dominated by different functional types of vegetative
communities that are limited in distribution by climate, precipitation, weather
and other environmental variables.
 Examples of biome names include: tropical rainforest, temperate broadleaf
and mixed forests, temperate deciduous forest, taiga, tundra, hot desert, and
polar desert.
SOCIAL ECOLOGY
 Social behaviors include reciprocally beneficial behaviors among kin and
nest mates. Social behaviors evolve from kin and group selection. Kin
selection explains altruism through genetic relationships, whereby an
altruistic behavior leading to death is rewarded by the survival of genetic
copies distributed among surviving relatives. The social insects, including
ants, bees and wasps are most famously studied for this type of relationship
because the male drones are clones that share the same genetic make-up as
every other male in the colony.
BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY
 All organisms are motile to some extent. Even plants express complex
behavior, including memory and communication. Behavioral ecology is the
study of an organism's behavior in its environment and its ecological and
evolutionary implications.
 Behaviour Eology is the study of observable movement or behavior in
animals. This could include investigations of motile sperm of plants, mobile
phytoplankton, zooplankton swimming toward the female egg, the cultivation
of fungi by weevils, the mating dance of a salamander, or social gatherings of
amoeba

9.  Adaptation is the central unifying concept in behavioral ecology. Behaviors
can be recorded as traits and inherited in much the same way that eye and
hair color can. Behaviors evolve and become adapted to the ecosystem
because they are subject to the forces of natural selection. Hence, behaviors
can be adaptive, meaning that they evolve functional utilities that increases
reproductive success for the individuals that inherit such traits. This is also
the technical definition for fitness in biology, which is a measure of
reproductive success over successive generations.
COEVOLUTION
 Ecological interactions can be divided into host and associate relationships.
A host is any entity that harbors another that is called the associate. Host and
associate relationships among species that are mutually or reciprocally
beneficial are called mutualisms.
 If the host and associate are physically connected, the relationship is called
symbiosis. Approximately 60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic
relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Symbiotic plants and fungi
exchange carbohydrates for mineral nutrients.
 Symbiosis differs from indirect mutualisms where the organisms live apart.
For example, tropical rainforests regulate the Earth's atmosphere. Trees
living in the equatorial regions of the planet supply oxygen into the
atmosphere that sustains species living in distant polar regions of the planet.
This relationship is called commensalism because many other host species
receive the benefits of clean air at no cost or harm to the associate tree
species supplying the oxygen.
 The host and associate relationship is called parasitism if one species
benefits while the other suffers. Competition among species or among
members of the same species is defined as reciprocal antagonism, such as
grasses competing for growth space.
MOLECULAR ECOLOGY
 The important relationship between ecology and genetic inheritance predates
modern techniques for molecular analysis. Molecular ecological research
became more feasible with the development of rapid and accessible genetic
technologies, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The rise of
molecular technologies and influx of research questions into this new
ecological field resulted in the publication Molecular Ecology in 1992.

10.  Molecular ecology uses various analytical techniques to study genes in an
evolutionary and ecological context.
HUMAN ECOLOGY
 Human ecology is the interdisciplinary investigation into the ecology of our
species. "Human ecology may be defined:
(1) from a bio-ecological standpoint as the study of man as the ecological
dominant in plant and animal communities and systems;
(2) as a human being, somehow different from animal life in general, interacting
with physical and modified environments in a distinctive and creative way.
The term human ecology was formally introduced in 1921, but many sociologists,
geographers, psychologists, and other disciplines were interested in human
relations to natural systems centuries prior, especially in the late 19th century.
Some authors have identified a new unifying science in coupled human and natural
systems that builds upon, but moves beyond the field human ecology. Ecology is
as much a biological science as it is a human science. Perhaps the most important
implication involves our view of human society.

11. ECOSYSTEM
The term ecosystem was proposed in 1935 by British Botanist Professor ARTHUR
TANSLEY. He defined it as a system resulting from the integration of all living
and no-living factorsof the environment.
Ecosystem is defined as : The basic functional unit of ecology and consist of
interacting organisms and all aspects of environment in any area.
It consist both living and non-living components. The size of ecosystem can vary.
It can be small as the size of aquarium and as large as ocean. As long as both living
and non-living organisms interact, the life sustained, it is considered as ecosystem.
Ecosystem can also be created artificially in the test tube in the laboratory. The
biosphere is made up of number of ecosystems such as ponds, lakes, streams,
rivers, sea, and sea shore, grass lands, deserts, forests etc.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM:
There are two major components of ecosystem.
A.) Living Organism: The living organisms refers to as Biotic community and
includes Plants, animals and microbs.
 Plants in the presence of light converts carbon-diaoxide and water
into carbohydrates and thus manufacture their own food. Plants are
therefore called Producers.
 Animals on the other hand consumes the products of plants and are
called as consumers.
 Microbs which includes bacteria‘s, fungi, and insects breake down
the dead organic matter , consumes some of the decomposed products
and releases multiple substances which are used by the plant to
manufacture their food. They are therefore called Decomposers.
B.) Non-living organisms: The non-living things are also called Abiotic
components. These are comprised of physical and chemical substances
which include sunlight, water, oxygen, carbon-diaoxide, minerals, dead
plants and animal matter and other factors such as temperature, light, heat,
wind and rainfall etc. All these help in growth of plants and animals.
 There are no of cycles such as carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, hydrogen
cycle, energy cycle etc. which help in manufacturing the food by plants,
maintenance of composition of air, formulations of moisture and rain,
maintenance of healthy soil, temperature, weather conditions, and
agriculture aspects.

12. FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEBS
The living organisms in the ecosystem of biosphere have feeding relationship with
one another to sustain life and maintain balance in these. In this feeding
relationship one organism become food for another which interns become food for
third organism, third for forth and goes on.
There are many different food chains which are inter-related to each other to form
network of food chains which is called food web.
 A food web is the archetypal ecological network. Plants capture and convert
solar energy into the bimolecular bonds of simple sugars during
photosynthesis. This food energy is transferred through a series of organisms
starting with those that feed on plants and are themselves consumed. The
simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a basal trophic species to
a top consumer is called the food chain. The larger interlocking pattern of
food chains in an ecological community creates a complex food web. Food
webs are a type of concept map or a heuristic device that is used illustrate and
study pathways of energy and material flows
 Food-webs exhibit principals of ecological emergence through the nature of
trophic entanglement, where some species have many weak feeding links
(e.g., omnivores) while some are more specialized with fewer stronger
feeding links (e.g., primary predators). Food-webs have compartments,
where the many strong interactions create subgroups among some members
in a community and the few weak interactions occur between these
subgroups. These compartments increase the stability of food-webs. As
plants grow, they accumulate carbohydrates and are eaten by grazing
herbivores. Step by step lines or relations are drawn until a web of life is
illustrated.

13.  The Greek root of the word troph, τροφή, trophē, means food or feeding.
Links in food-webs primarily connect feeding relations or trophism among
species. Biodiversity within ecosystems can be organized into vertical and
horizontal dimensions. The vertical dimension represents feeding relations
that become further removed from the base of the food chain up toward top
predators.
 A trophic level is defined as "a group of organisms acquiring a considerable
majority of its energy from the adjacent level nearer the abiotic source. The
horizontal dimension represents the abundance or biomass at each level.
When the relative abundance or biomass of each functional feeding group is
stacked into their respective trophic levels they naturally sort into a 'pyramid
of numbers'.
 Functional groups are broadly categorized as autotrophs (or primary
producers), heterotrophs (or consumers), and detrivores (or decomposers).
 Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their own food (production is
greater than respiration) and are usually plants or cyanobacteria that are

14. capable of photosynthesis but can also be other organisms such as bacteria
near ocean vents that are capable of chemosynthesis.
 Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and
energy (respiration exceeds production). Heterotrophs can be further sub-
divided into different functional groups, including:
- primary consumers (strict herbivores),
- secondary consumers (carnivorous predators that feed exclusively on
herbivores)
- tertiary consumers (predators that feed on a mix of herbivores and
predators). Omnivores do not fit neatly into a functional category because
they eat both plant and animal tissues. It has been suggested that
omnivores have a greater functional influence as predators because
relative to herbivores they are comparatively inefficient at grazing.
ECOSYSTEM RELATION TO ENVIRONMENT
The environment is dynamically interlinked, imposed upon and constrains
organisms at any time throughout their life cycle. Like the term ecology,
environment has different conceptual meanings and to many these terms also
overlap with the concept of nature.
 Environment "...includes the physical world, the social world of human
relations and the built world of human creation." The environment in
ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes. The
physical environment is external to the level of biological organization under
investigation, including abiotic factors such as temperature, radiation, light,
chemistry, climate and geology. The biotic environment includes genes,
cells, organisms, members of the same species (conspecifics) and other
species that share a habitat.
The laws of thermodynamics applies to ecology by means of its physical state.
Armed with an understanding of metabolic and thermodynamic principles a
complete accounting of energy and material flow can be traced through an
ecosystem.
Environmental and ecological relations are studied through reference to
conceptually manageable and isolated parts. Once the effective environmental
components are understood they conceptually link back together as a holocoenotic

15. system. In other words, the organism and the environment form a dynamic whole
Change in one ecological or environmental factor can concurrently affect the
dynamic state of an entire ecosystem.
(A) Disturbance and resilience
Ecosystems are regularly confronted with natural environmental variations and
disturbances over time and geographic space. A disturbance is any process that
removes living biomass from a community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or
predation. Fluctuations causing disturbance occur over vastly different ranges in
terms of magnitudes as well as distances and time periods. Disturbances, such as
fire, are both cause and product of natural fluctuations in death rates, species
assemblages, and biomass densities within an ecological community. These
disturbances create places of renewal where new directions emerge out of the
patchwork of natural experimentation and opportunity. Ecological resilience is a
cornerstone theory in ecosystem management. Biodiversity fuels the resilience of
ecosystems acting as a kind of regenerative insurance.
(B)Metabolism and the early atmosphere
Metabolism – the rate at which energy and material resources are taken up from
the environment, transformed within an organism, and allocated to maintenance,
growth and reproduction – is a fundamental physiological trait.
The Earth formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago and environmental
conditions were too extreme for life to form for the first 500 million years. During
this early Hadean period, the Earth started to cool, allowing a crust and oceans to
form. Environmental conditions were unsuitable for the origins of life for the first
billion years after the Earth formed.
The Earth's atmosphere transformed from being dominated by hydrogen, to
one composed mostly of methane and ammonia. Over the next billion years the
metabolic activity of life transformed the atmosphere to higher concentrations of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor. These gases changed the way that light
from the sun hit the Earth's surface and greenhouse effects trapped heat. There
were untapped sources of free energy within the mixture of reducing and oxidizing
gasses that set the stage for primitive ecosystems to evolve and, in turn, the
atmosphere also evolved.
The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants.

16. Throughout history, the Earth's atmosphere and biogeochemical cycles have been
in a dynamic equilibrium with planetary ecosystems. The history is characterized
by periods of significant transformation followed by millions of years of stability.
The evolution of the earliest organisms, likely anaerobic methanogen
microbes, started the process by converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane
(4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O).
Anoxygenic photosynthesis converting hydrogen sulfide into other sulfur
compounds or water (for example 2H2S + CO2 + hv → CH2O + H2O + 2S), as
occurs in deep sea hydrothermal vents today, reduced hydrogen concentrations and
increased atmospheric methane.
Early forms of fermentation also increased levels of atmospheric methane.
The transition to an oxygen dominant atmosphere (the Great Oxidation) did not
begin until approximately 2.4-2.3 billion years ago, but photosynthetic processes
started 0.3 to 1 billion years prior
(C) Radiation: heat, temperature and light
The biology of life operates within a certain range of temperatures. Heat is a form
of energy that regulates temperature.
 Heat affects growth rates, activity, behavior and primary production.
 Temperature is largely dependent on the incidence of solar radiation.
The latitudinal and longitudinal spatial variation of temperature greatly affects
climates and consequently the distribution of biodiversity and levels of primary
production in different ecosystems or biomes across the planet.
 Heat and temperature relate importantly to metabolic activity.
Poikilotherms, for example, have a body temperature that is largely regulated and
dependent on the temperature of the external environment. In contrast,
homeotherms regulate their internal body temperature by expending metabolic
energy.
There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological energy
budgets. Sunlight is the primary input of energy into the planet's ecosystems. Light
is composed of electromagnetic energy of different wavelengths. Radiant energy
from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light measured as active energy in
the chemical reactions of life, and also acts as a catalyst for genetic mutation.
Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy
through photosynthesis. Organisms capable of assimilating energy by

17. photosynthesis or through inorganic fixation of H2S are autotrophs. Autotrophs—
responsible for primary production—assimilate light energy that becomes
metabolically stored as potential energy in the form of biochemical enthalpic
bonds.
Physical environments
Water
Wetland conditions such as shallow water, high plant productivity, and anaerobic
substrates provide a suitable environment for important physical, biological, and
chemical processes. Because of these processes, wetlands play a vital role in global
nutrient and element cycles.:
The rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times
slower in water than it is in air. When soils become flooded, they quickly lose
oxygen and transform into a low-concentration (hypoxic - O2 concentration lower
than 2 mg/liter) environment and eventually become completely (anoxic)
environment where anaerobic bacteria thrive among the roots. Water also
influences the spectral composition and amount of light as it reflects off the water
surface and submerged particles.
Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of morphological and physiological
adaptations that allow them to survive, compete and diversify these environments.
For example, the roots and stems develop large air spaces (Aerenchyma) that
regulate the efficient transportation gases (for example, CO2 and O2) used in
respiration and photosynthesis. In drained soil, microorganisms use oxygen during
respiration. In aquatic environments, anaerobic soil microorganisms use nitrate,
manganese ions, ferric ions, sulfate, carbon dioxide and some organic compounds.
The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the
oxidation-reduction potentials of the water. Carbon dioxide, for example, is
reduced to methane (CH4) by methanogenic bacteria.
Gravity
The shape and energy of the land is affected to a large degree by gravitational
forces. On a larger scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth are
uneven and influence the shape and movement of tectonic plates as well as having
an influence on geomorphic processes such as orogeny and erosion. These forces
govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes
across the Earth. On a organism scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues

18. for plant and fungal growth (gravitropism), orientation cues for animal migrations,
and influence the biomechanics and size of animals. Ecological traits, such as
allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as
gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves.
The cardiovascular systems of all animals are functionally adapted to overcome
pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms
(e.g., height, size, shape), their behavior (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the
habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).
Pressure
Climatic and osmotic pressure places physiological constraints on organisms, such
as flight and respiration at high altitudes, or diving to deep ocean depths. These
constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere as organisms
are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water
pressure differences. Oxygen levels, for example, decrease with increasing
pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes. Water transportation
through trees is another important ecophysiological parameter where osmotic
pressure gradients factor in. Water pressure in the depths of oceans requires that
organisms adapt to these conditions. For example, mammals, such as whales,
dolphins and seals are specially adapted to deal with changes in sound due to water
pressure differences. Different species of hagfish provide another example of
adaptation to deep-sea pressure through specialized protein adaptations.
Wind and turbulence
The architecture of inflorescence in grasses is subject to the physical pressures of
wind and shaped by the forces of natural selection facilitating wind-pollination (or
anemophily).
 Turbulent forces in air and water have significant effects on the environment
and ecosystem distribution, form and dynamics. On a planetary scale, ecosystems
are affected by circulation patterns in the global trade winds. Wind power and the
turbulent forces it creates can influence heat, nutrient, and biochemical profiles of
ecosystems. For example, wind running over the surface of a lake creates
turbulence, mixing the water column and influencing the environmental profile to
create thermally layered zones, partially governing how fish, algae, and other parts
of the aquatic ecology are structured.

19.  Wind speed and turbulence also exert influence on rates of evaporation rates
and energy budgets in plants and animals. Wind speed, temperature and moisture
content can vary as winds travel across different landfeatures and elevations
Fire
Forest fires modify the land by leaving behind an environmental mosaic that
diversifies the landscape into different serial stages and habitats of varied quality
(left). Some species are adapted to forest fires, such as pine trees that open their
cones only after fire exposure (right).
Plants convert carbon dioxide into biomass and emit oxygen into the atmosphere
Approximately 350 million years ago (near the Devonian period) the
photosynthetic process brought the concentration of atmospheric oxygen above
17%, which allowed combustion to occur Fire releases CO2 and converts fuel into
ash and tar. Fire is a significant ecological parameter that raises many issues
pertaining to its control and suppression in management. While the issue of fire in
relation to ecology and plants has been recognized for a long time, Charles Cooper
brought attention to the issue of forest fires in relation to the ecology of forest fire
suppression and management in the 1960s.
Fire creates environmental mosaics and a patchiness to ecosystem age and canopy
structure. Native North Americans were among the first to influence fire regimes
by controlling their spread near their homes or by lighting fires to stimulate the
production of herbaceous foods and basketry materials. The altered state of soil
nutrient supply and cleared canopy structure also opens new ecological niches for
seedling establishment. Most ecosystem are adapted to natural fire cycles. Plants,
for example, are equipped with a variety of adaptations to deal with forest fires.
Some species (e.g., Pinus halepensis) cannot germinate until after their seeds have
lived through a fire. This environmental trigger for seedlings is called serotiny.
Some compounds from smoke also promote seed germination. Fire plays a major
role in the persistence and resilience of ecosystems.
Biogeochemistry
Ecologists study and measure nutrient budgets to understand how these materials
are regulated, flow, and recycled through the environment. This research has led to
an understanding that there is a global feedback between ecosystems and the
physical parameters of this planet including minerals, soil, pH, ions, water and
atmospheric gases. There are six major elements, including H (hydrogen), C
(carbon), N (nitrogen), O (oxygen), S (sulfur), and P (phosphorus) that form the

20. constitution of all biological macromolecules and feed into the Earth's geochemical
processes. From the smallest scale of biology the combined effect of billions upon
billions of ecological processes amplify and ultimately regulate the biogeochemical
cycles of the Earth. Understanding the relations and cycles mediated between these
elements and their ecological pathways has significant bearing toward
understanding global biogeochemistry.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES:
Ecosystem services are ecologically mediated functional processes essential to
sustaining healthy human societies. Water provision and filtration, production of
biomass in forestry, agriculture, and fisheries, and removal of greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere are examples of ecosystem
services essential to public health and economic opportunity. Nutrient cycling is a
process fundamental to agricultural and forest production.
However, like most ecosystem processes, nutrient cycling is not an ecosystem
characteristic which can be ―dialed‖ to the most desirable level. Maximizing
production in degraded systems is an overly simplistic solution to the complex
problems of hunger and economic security. For instance, intensive fertilizer use in
the Midwestern United States has resulted in degraded fisheries in the Gulf of
Mexico. Regrettably, a ―Green Revolution‖ of intensive chemical fertilization has
been recommended for agriculture in developed and developing countries.[8][9]
These strategies risk alteration of ecosystem processes that may be difficult to
restore, especially when applied at broad scales without adequate assessment of
impacts. Ecosystem processes may take many years to recover from significant
disturbance.
For instance, large-scale forest clearance in the northeastern United States during
the 18th and 19th centuries has altered soil texture, dominant vegetation, and
nutrient cycling in ways that impact forest productivity in the present day An
appreciation of the importance of ecosystem function in maintenance of
productivity, whether in agriculture or forestry, is needed in conjunction with plans
for restoration of essential processes. Improved knowledge of ecosystem function
will help to achieve long-term sustainability and stability in the poorest parts of the
world.
How do ecosystems work?

21. Biomass productivity is one of the most apparent and economically important
ecosystem functions. Biomass accumulation begins at the cellular level via
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires water and consequently global patters of
annual biomass production are correlated with annual precipitation. Amounts of
productivity are also dependent on the overall capacity of plants to capture sunlight
which is directly correlated with plant leaf area and N content.
Net primary productivity (NPP) is the primary measure of biomass accumulation
within an ecosystem. Net primary productivity can be calculated by a simple
formula where the total amount of productivity is adjusted for total productivity
losses through maintenance of biological processes:
NPP = GPP – Rproducer
Where GPP is gross primary productivity is photosynthate (Carbon) lost via
cellular respiration.
Decomposition and nutrient cycling
Decomposition and nutrient cycling are fundamental to ecosystem biomass
production. Most natural ecosystems are nitrogen (N) limited and biomass
production is closely correlated with N turnover typically external input of
nutrients is very low and efficient recycling of nutrients maintains productivity.
Decomposition of plant litter accounts for the majority of nutrients recycled
through ecosystems. Rates of plant litter decomposition are highly dependent on
litter quality; high concentration of phenolic compounds, especially lignin, in plant
litter has a retarding effect on litter decomposition. More complex C compounds
are decomposed more slowly and may take many years to completely breakdown.
Decomposition is typically described with exponential decay.
Globally, rates of decomposition are mediated by litter quality and climate.
Ecosystems dominated by plants with low-lignin concentration often have rapid
rates of decomposition and nutrient cycling (Chapin et al. 1982). Simple carbon
(C) containing compounds are preferentially metabolized by decomposer
microorganisms which results in rapid initial rates of decomposition
For instance, proteins, sugars and lipids decompose exponentially, but lignin
decays at a more linear rate Thus, litter decay is inaccurately predicted by
simplistic models

22. Trophic dynamics
Trophic dynamics refers to process of energy and nutrient transfer between
organisms. Trophic dynamics is an important part of the structure and function of
ecosystems. Energy gained by primary producers (plants, P) is consumed by
herbivores (H), which are consumed by carnivores (C), which are themselves
consumed by ―top- carnivores‖(TC).
Plants exert a ―bottom-up‖ control on the energy structure of ecosystems by
determining the total amount of energy that enters the system.
Trophic dynamics can strongly influence rates of decomposition and nutrient
cycling in time and in space. For example, herbivory can increase litter
decomposition and nutrient cycling via direct changes in litter quality and altered
dominant vegetation. Insect herbivory has been shown to increase rates of
decomposition and nutrient turnover due to changes in litter quality and increased
frays inputs
However, insect outbreak does not always increase nutrient cycling. Stadler
showed that C rich honeydew produced during aphid outbreak can result in
increased N immobilization by soil microbes thus slowing down nutrient cycling
and potentially limiting biomass production. North Atlantic marine ecosystems
have been greatly altered by overfishing of cod. Cod stocks crashed in the 1990s
which resulted in increases in their prey such as shrimp and snow crab. Human
intervention in ecosystems has resulted in dramatic changes to ecosystem structure
and function. These changes are occurring rapidly and have unknown
consequences for economic security and human well-being.
Applications: Why does this science matter?
The biosphere has been greatly altered by the demands of human societies.
Ecosystem ecology plays an important role in understanding and adapting to the
most pressing current environmental problems. Restoration of ecology and
ecosystem management are closely associated with ecosystem ecology. Restoring
highly degraded resources depends on integration of functional mechanisms of
ecosystems.

23.  Without these functions intact, economic value of ecosystems is greatly
reduced and potentially dangerous conditions may develop in the field.
For example, areas within the mountainous western highlands of Guatemala are
more susceptible to catastrophic landslides and crippling seasonal water shortages
due to loss of forest resources.
 In contrast, cities such as Totonicapán that have preserved forests through
strong social institutions have greater local economic stability and overall greater
human well-being.
This situation is striking considering that these areas are close to each other, the
majority of inhabitants are of Mayan descent, and the topography and overall
resources are similar. This is a case of two groups of people managing resources in
fundamentally different ways. Ecosystem ecology provides the basic science
needed to avoid degradation and to restore ecosystem processes that provide for
basic human needs
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS
INTRODUCTION- One of the greatest problems that the world is facing today is
that of environmental pollution, increasing with every passing year and causing
grave and irreparable damage to the earth. Environmental pollution consists of five
basic types of pollution, namely, air, water, soil, noise and light.

24. TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
WATER POLLUTION
SOIL POLLUTION
NOISE POLLUTION
LIGHT POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION- Air pollution is by far the most harmful form of pollution in
our environment. Air pollution is cause by the injurious smoke emitted by cars,
buses, trucks, trains, and factories, namely sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide and
nitrogen oxides. Even smoke from burning leaves and cigarettes are harmful to the
environment causing a lot of damage to man and the atmosphere. Evidence of
increasing air pollution is seen in lung cancer, asthma, allergies, and various
breathing problems along with severe and irreparable damage to flora and fauna.
Even the most natural phenomenon of migratory birds has been hampered, with
severe air pollution preventing them from reaching their seasonal metropolitan
destinations of centuries.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), released from refrigerators, air-conditioners,
deodorants and insect repellents cause severe damage to the Earth‘s environment.
This gas has slowly damaged the atmosphere and depleted the ozone layer leading
to global warming.
WATER POLLUTION- Water pollution caused industrial waste products
released into lakes, rivers, and other water bodies, has made marine life no longer
hospitable. Humans pollute water with large scale disposal of garbage, flowers,
ashes and other household waste. In many rural areas one can still find people
bathing and cooking in the same water, making it incredibly filthy. Acid rain
further adds to water pollution in the water. In addition to these, thermal pollution
and the depletion of dissolved oxygen aggravate the already worsened condition of
the water bodies. Water pollution can also indirectly occur as an offshoot of soil
pollution – through surface runoff and leaching to groundwater.
NOISE POLLUTION- Noise pollution, soil pollution and light pollution too are
the damaging the environment at an alarming rate. Noise pollution include aircraft
noise, noise of cars, buses, and trucks, vehicle horns, loudspeakers, and industry
noise, as well as high-intensity sonar effects which are extremely harmful for the
environment.

25. Maximum noise pollution occurs due to one of modern science‘s best discoveries –
the motor vehicle, which is responsible for about ninety percent of all unwanted
noise worldwide.
SOIL POLLUTION- Soil pollution, which can also be called soil contamination,
is a result of acid rain, polluted water, fertilizers etc., which leads to bad crops. Soil
contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground storage
tank leakage which releases heavy contaminants into the soil. These may include
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
LIGHT POLLUTION- Light Pollution includes light trespass, over-illumination
and astronomical interference
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION IMPACT ON HUMAN BEING
We know that pollution causes not only physical disabilities but also psychological
and
behavioral disorders in people. The following pollution effects on humans have
been reported:
I. Effects of Air Pollution
Reduced lung functioning
Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
Asthma attacks

26. Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing
Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
Reduced energy levels
Headaches and dizziness
Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
Neurobehavioural disorders
Cardiovascular problems
Cancer
Premature death
II.Effects of Water Pollution
a. Waterborne diseases caused by polluted drinking water:
o Typhoid
o Amoebiasis
o Giardiasis
o Ascariasis
o Hookworm
b. Waterborne diseases caused by polluted beach water:
o Rashes, ear ache, pink eye
o Respiratory in Hepatitis, encephalitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea,
vomiting, and stomach aches
c. Conditions related to water polluted by chemicals (such as pesticides,
hydrocarbons, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metals etc):
o Cancer, incl. prostate cancer and non-Hodgkin‘s lymphoma
o Hormonal problems that can disrupt reproductive and developmental
processes
o Damage to the nervous system
o Liver and kidney damage
o Damage to the DNA
o Exposure to mercury (heavy metal):
o In the womb: may cause neurological problems including slower
reflexes, learning deficits, delayed or incomplete mental
development, autism and brain damage
o In adults: Parkinson‘s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer‘s
disease, heart disease, and even death
d. Other effects:
o Water pollution may also result from interactions between water and
contaminated soil as from deposition of air contaminants (such as acid
rain)
o Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from polluted
water (a well known example is high mercury levels in fish)

27. o Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown / washed
with polluted water (author‘s own conclusion)
III. Effects of Soil Pollution
o Causes cancers including leukaemia
o Lead in soil is especially hazardous for young children causing
developmental damage to the
 brain
o Mercury can increase the risk of kidney damage; cyclo dienes can
lead to liver toxicity
o Causes neuro muscular blockage as well as depression of the central
nervous system
o Also causes headaches, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash
o Contact with contaminated soil may be direct (from using parks,
schools etc) or indirect (by inhaling soil contaminants which have
vaporized)
o Soil pollution may also result from secondary contamination of water
supplies and from deposition of air contaminants (for example, via
acid rain)
o Contamination of crops grown in polluted soil brings up problems
with food security
o Since it is closely linked to water pollution, many effects of soil
contamination appear to be similar to the ones caused by water
contamination.
IV. Effects of Noise Pollution
Decreases the efficiency of a man-Regarding the impact of noise on human
efficiency there are number of experiments which shows that human
efficiency increases with noise reduction.
Lack of concentration-For better quality of work there should be
concentration , Noise causes lack of concentration. In big cities , mostly all
the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or the loud speakers of
different types of horns divert the attention of the
people working in offices.
Fatigue:Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their
work. Thus they have to give their more time for completing the work and
they feel tiring.

28. Abortion is caused-There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the
pregnancy. Unpleasant sounds make a lady of irritative nature. Sudden
Noise causes abortion in females.
Causes Blood Pressure-Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It
attacks on the person‘s peace of mind. The noises are recognized as major
contributing factors in accelerating the already existing tensions of modern
living. These tensions result in certain disease like blood pressure or mental
illness etc.
Temporary of permanent Deafness-The effect of noise on audition is well
recognized. Mechanics ,locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc. All
have their hearing impairment as a result of noise at the place of work.
Physicians & psychologists are of the view that continued exposure to noise
level above. 80 to 100 db is unsafe, Loud noise causes temporary or
permanent deafness.
Environmental Pollution Effects on Animals
I. Effects of Air Pollution
o Acid rain (formed in the air) destroys fish life in lakes and streams
o Excessive ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun through the
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere which is eroded by some air
pollutants, may cause skin cancer in wildlife
o Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues of animals
II. Effects of Water Pollution
o Nutrient pollution (nitrogen, phosphates etc) causes overgrowth of
toxic algae eaten by other aquatic animals, and may cause death;
nutrient pollution can also cause outbreaks of fish diseases
o Oil pollution (as part of chemical contamination) can negatively affect
development of marine organisms, increase susceptibility to disease
and affect reproductive processes; can also cause gastrointestinal
irritation, liver and kidney damage, and damage to the nervous system
o Mercury in water can cause abnormal behavior, slower growth and
development, reduced reproduction, and death
o Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may cause declines, deformities
and death of fish life
o Too much sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may kill animals

29. o We also assume that some higher forms of non-aquatic animals may
have similar effects from water pollution as those experienced by
humans, as described above
III. Effects of Soil Pollution
Can alter metabolism of microorganisms and arthropods in a given
soil environment; this may destroy some layers of the primary food
chain, and thus have a negative effect on predator animal species
Small life forms may consume harmful chemicals which may then be
passed up the food chain to larger animals; this may lead to increased
mortality rates and even animal extinction.
IV. Effects of Noise Pollution
o Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animal.
o Animal looses the control of its mind.
o They become dangerous.
o
Environmental Pollution Effects on Trees and Plants
I. Effects of Air Pollution
Trees Damaged by Acid Rain
• Acid rain can kill trees, destroy the leaves of plants, can infiltrate soil by making
it unsuitable for purposes of nutrition and habitation
• Ozone holes in the upper atmosphere can allow excessive ultraviolet radiation
from the sun to enter the Earth causing damage to trees and plants
• Ozone in the lower atmosphere can prevent plant respiration by blocking stomata
(openings in leaves) and negatively affecting plants‘ photosynthesis rates which
will stunt plant growth; ozone can also decay plant cells directly by entering
stomata.
II. Effects of Water Pollution
• May disrupt photosynthesis in aquatic plants and thus affecting ecosystems that
depend on these plants
• Terrestrial and aquatic plants may absorb pollutants from water (as their main
nutrient source) and pass them up the food chain to consumer animals and humans
• Plants may be killed by too much sodium chloride (ordinary slat) in water
• Plants may be killed by mud from construction sites as well as bits of wood and
leaves, clay and other similar materials
• Plants may be killed by herbicides in water; herbicides are chemicals which are
most harmful to plants.
III. Effects of Soil Pollution
• May alter plant metabolism and reduce crop yields
• Trees and plants may absorb soil contaminants and pass them up the food chain

30. IV. Effects of Noise Pollution
Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops in a pleasant atmosphere.
PRESERVATION OF ECOLOGY
Introduction
There has been an increasing awareness in recent years that protection of the
environment is necessary for sustaining the economic and social progress of a
country. This awareness was reflected at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in
June 1992, where more than a 100 heads of government adopted a global action
plan called Agenda 21 aimed at integrating environmental imperatives with de-

31. velopmental aspirations and reiterated through the U.N. General Assembly Special
Session on Environment held in 1997.
The Indian Government's Policy towards Environment is guided by the principles
of Agenda 21. The Government of India has issued Policy Statements on:
Forestry
Abatement of Pollution
National Conservation Strategy
Environment and Development
The main environment problems in India relate to air and water pollution,
degradation of common property resources, threat to biological diversity, solid
waste disposal and sanitation. Increasing deforestation, industrialization,
urbanization, transportation and input-intensive agriculture are some of the other
major causes of environmental problems faced by the country.
2. Air Quality
Air pollution, a severe environmental problem in urban areas, can cause chronic
and acute respiratory diseases, ventilatory malfunction, heart disease, cancer of
lungs and even death. The blood lead levels of persons in Ahmedabad, Bombay
and Calcutta have been reported to be higher than the corresponding levels of
persons in lead-free gasoline areas. In most of the cities, while the SPM levels are
significantly higher than the CPCB Standards, the levels of S02 and N02 are within
the CPCB Standards.
3. Water Resources and Water Quality
In India, three sources of water pollution are: domestic sewage, industrial elements
and run-off from agriculture.
The most significant environmental problem and threat to public health in both
rural and urban India is inadequate access to clean drinking water and sanitation
facilities. The diseases commonly caused by contaminated water are diarrhea,
trachoma, intestinal worms, hepatitis etc. Many of the rivers and lakes are
contaminated from industrial effluents and agricultural run-off, with toxic-
chemicals and heavy metals which are hard to remove from drinking water with
standard' purification facilities.
4. Solid Wastes and Hazardous Chemicals

32. There has been a significant increase in the generation of domestic, urban and
industrial wastes in the last few decades, owing to rapid population growth and
industrialization. The per capita solid waste generated in Mumbai is 0.20 tonne, in
Delhi it is 0.44 tonnes and 0.29 tonnes in Chennai.
5. Land Degradation and Soil Loss
Soil erosion is the most serious cause of land degradation. Estimates show
that around 130 million hectares of land (45 per cent of total geographical
area) is affected by serious soil erosion through ravine and gully, cultivated
waste lands, water-logging, shifting cultivation etc. It is also estimated that
India losses about 5310 million tonnes of soil annually.
The accumulation of salts and alkalinity affect the productivity of
agricultural lands in arid and semi-arid regions, which are under irrigation.
The magnitude of water logging in irrigated command has recently been
estimated at 2.46 million hectare. Besides, 3.4 million hectares suffer from
surface water stagnation.
Fertilizers and pesticides are important inputs for increasing agricultural
production. Their use has increased significantly from the mid-60s. Over and
unbalanced use of these chemicals is fraught with danger. However,
fertilizers and pesticide use are concentrated in certain areas and crops.
6. Forest, Wild-Life and Bio-Diversity
Forests are important for maintaining ecological balance and preserving the
life supporting system of the earth. They are essential for food production,
health and other aspects of human survival and sustainable development.
Indian forests constitute 2 per cent of the world's forest area but are forced to
support 12 per cent of the world's human population and 14 per cent of
world's livestock population. This is sufficient to indicate the tremendous
biotic pressure they face. Forests in India have been shrinking for several
decades owing to the pressure of population on land for competing uses,
such as agriculture, irrigation & power projects, industry, roads etc.
Another concern relating to the state of forest resources is that of bio-
diversity and extinction of species. India has a rich heritage of species and
genetic strains of flora and fauna. Out of the total eighteen-bio-diversity hot-
spots in the world, India has 2, one is North-East Himalayas and the other is
the Western Ghats.
At present, India is home to several animal species that are threatened,
including over 77 mammal, 22 reptiles and 55 birds and one amphibian
species. For in-situ conservation of bio-diversity, India has developed a

33. network of protected areas including national parks, sanctuaries and bio-
sphere reserves.
Environment problems and issues received special attention of the
Government of India during the beginning of the Fourth Five Year Plan.
As a follow up step, a National Committee of Environment Planning and
Co-ordination (NCEPC) were set up in 1972 under the Department of
Science and Technology. A separate Empowered Committee was set up in
1980 for reviewing the existing legislative measures and administrative
machinery for ensuring environmental protection and for recommending
ways to strengthen them.
On the recommendations of this Empowered Committee, a separate
Department of Environment was set up in 1980, which was subsequently
upgraded to a full-fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985 to
serve as the focal point in the administrative structure of the Government of
India for the planning, promotion and co-ordination of environmental and
forestry programmes.
7. Flora and Fauna
The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) was established in 1980, with its
headquarters in Calcutta, is responsible for surveying and identifying plant
resources of the country.
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established in 1916, with its
headquarters in Calcutta, is responsible for carrying out surveys of the faunal
resources of India.
The Forest Survey of India (FSI) was established in 1981, with it
headquarters in Dehradun, is entrusted with task of surveying the forest
resources of India.
The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment
and Development, adopted by Government of India in June 1992, lays down
strategies and actions for integration of environmental considerations in the
development activities of various sectors of the country, thus paving the way
of achieving sustainable development.
11 Biosphere reserves have been set up to preserve the genetic diversity in
representative eco-system which are ; Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Great
Nicobar, Gulf of Mannar, Manas, Sunderbans, Similipal, Dibru Saikhowa,
Dehong Deband and Pachmarhi.
8. Wetland, mangroves and Coral Reefs

34. The system of conservation and management of mangroves was initiated in
19§6. The main activities under the programme are survey and identification
of problems, protection and, conservation measures like natural re-
generation, afforestation, nursery development, education, and awareness
programmes and research on various aspects of managrove ecosystems and
coral reef. It is an ongoing activity. Review meetings for both research
projects and management action plans are periodically held to monitor the
progress.
Four coral reefs have been identified for intensive conservation and
management. These include Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. The scheme on conservation and
management of wetland was initiated in 1987.
India is one of the few countries which have Forest Policy since 1894, which
was revised in 1952 and then in 1988. The main plank of the Forest Policy
of 1988 is protection, conservation and development of forests. In order to
operationalize the National Forest Policy 1988, a National Forestry Action
Programme (NFAP) is being prepared.
Under the provisions of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, prior approval
of the Central Government is required for the diversion of forest lands for
non forest purposes.
Joint Forest Management (JFM) is being practiced in 21 states of the
country.
To help in controlling forest fire, UNDP-assisted Modern Forest Fire
Control Projects which was started in 1984 in Chandrapur (Maharastra) and
Haldwani/Nainital (U.P), is in operation in 11 states of the country.
At present the protected area network comprises 84 national parks and 447
sanctuaries covering 4.5 per cent of total geographical area of the country.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 adopted by all states except Jammu and
Kashmir (which has its own Act), governs wildlife conservation and
protection of endangered species. An Inter-State Committee has been set up
to review the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and other laws. India is a
signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES).
Under Project Tiger, launched in April 1973, 25 Tiger Reserves have been
set up in 14 states.
The Animal Welfare Board of India, established in 1962 under the
provisions of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 is an
autonomous organization of the Ministry of Environment and Forests
working for the cause of animal welfare in the country. Animal Welfare
Fortnight is celebrated from 14 January every year.

35. 9. Environment
A notification issued in January, 1994 makes Environment Impact
Assessment statutory for 29 categories of developmental projects under
various sections such as industrial, mining, irrigation, power etc. The
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification was amended in 1997.
Authorities under Environment Protection Act, 1976
A National Environmental Appellate Authority has been constituted to hear
appeals with respect to rejection of proposals from environmental angle.
The policy statement on Abatement of Pollution, adopted in 1992, provides
instruments in the form of legislation and regulation, fiscal incentives,
voluntary agreements, educational programmes and information campaigns
to prevent and control pollution of water, air and land.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is the national apex body for
assessment, monitoring and control of water and air pollution.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal agency for the
management and control of hazardous substances which include Hazardous
chemicals, waste and micro-organisms. The following rules have been
notified under the Environment Protection Act (1986): (i) Manufacture,
Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals, 1989; (ii) Hazardous Wastes
(Management and Handling) Rules, 1989; (iii) Manufacture, Use, Import
and Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro-organisms/Genetically Engi-
neered Organisms 4xr Cell, 1989 and (iv) Biomedical Waste Rules, 1998.
A Crisis Alert System had been established. The sub-scheme entitled
'Industrial Pocket-wise Hazard Analysis' has been in operation since the
Eighth Five year Plan.
India is a signatory to the UNEP sponsored convention on Control of
Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes which was adopted at
Basel, Switzerland by 126 governments of the world in 1989.
The Central Ganga Authority (CGA) established in 1985, lays down the
policies for works to be taken up under the Ganga Action Plan (GAP). With
the approval of the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) in 1995, the
CGA has been recontituted as the National River Conservation Authority
(NRCA) and the Ganga Project Directorate has been redesigned as National
River Conservation Directorate (NRCD).
The Ganga Action Plan, Phase II has been merged with the NRCP through a
government resolution.
The National Wasteland Development Board (NWDP) established in May,
1985 was bifurcated into a new Department of Waste Land Development
and a National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB) in 1992.

36. An Environment Information System (ENVIS) was set up by the Ministry of
Environment and Forest in 1982 as a decentralized information network for
collection, storage, retrieval and dissemination of environmental in-
formation.
A new scheme, Paryavaran Vahini, was launched in 1992-93 to create
environmental awareness and to ensure active public participation by
involving the local people in activities relating to environmental protection.
Paryavaran Vahinis are proposed to be constituted in 194 selected districts
all over the country which have a high indicence of pollution and density of
tribal and forest population.
The National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) was set up in New Delhi
in 1978, is concerned with the promotion of non-formal education in the area
of environment and conservation.
FACTOR AFFECTING ECOSYSTEM AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
The natural environment in which we live is constantly deterioting because of
constant change which are taking place in various ecosystem of our biosphere.
Some changes are cyclic transient because of seasonal variation and changes like
flood ,drought etc .where are some other are irreversible and permanent eg
geological transformation ,continental drift etc .
There are number of man made and natural factor which are affecting our
ecosystem and environmental health .Brief description of these factor are given
below-

37. Population explosion
Industrialization
Urbanization
Auto mobiles
Modern agricultural practices
Deforestation
Radioactive substances
Natural calamities
POPULATION EXPLOSION-India population is increases very rapidly .Every
year around 20 million new lives are added .This rapid increase in our population
is having harmful and unfavourable effect on our environment .It is creating
problem due to overcrowding ,depletion of natural resources and development of
man made resources by industrialization ,green revolution.
The rapid increase in our population is creating problem of waste management .
INDUSTRIALIZATION-There has been industrial revolution in the twentienth
century .The industries have multiplied not only in magnitude but also in variety
.These include both small scale cottage industries and large scale cottage industries
.All these industries generate lots of waste product such as gases ,effluents,solid
material ,thermal wastes
URBANIZATION-There has been increase in urbanization of our population .It is
due to industrial revolution ,poverty,lack of resources and services in the village
.People from village migrate from town to cities for employment ,education
resulting in overcrowding and slums
AUTOMOBILES-These could save time ,efforts and labour of people in there
mobility from one place to another and transportation of all those thing which are
used by people ,but exhaust release from automobiles is creating great havoc in
atmosphere
MODERN AGRICULTURE PRACTICES-Irrigation activities in rural areas often
lead to logging of water which promotes the breeding of mosquitoes .at time in
certain areas due to excessive irrigation from canal water ,the land becomes
marshy and useless for cultivation
DEFORESTATION- Deforestation refers to removing the forest .Deforestation is
there because of fire wood require by human being ,demand of wood for
construction of houses ,building etc.

38. NATURAL CALAMITIES-It includes the flood ,earthquakes ,cyclone,drought
,volcano,landslides ,tidal volume .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1- Park.k ―Textbook of preventive and social medicine‘‘ 20th edition
(2010),m/s banarsidas bhanot publishers , Jabalpur pp-24-28
2- Keshav swarankar ―community health nursing ― 3rd edition (2011) ,N.R
brothers publishers .Indore pp- 67-69
3- Gulani k k ―Community health nursing‘‘ 9th edition (2009) , kumar
publishing house .Delhi pp-21-23
References
 Chapman, S.K., Hart, S.C., Cobb, N.S., Whitham, T.G., and
Koch, G.W. (2003). "Insect herbivory increases litter quality
and decomposition: an extension of the acceleration
hypothesis". in: Ecology 84:2867-2876.
 Hagen, J.B. (1992). An Entangled Bank: The origins of
ecosystem ecology. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick,
N.J.
 Odum, H.T. (1971). Environment, Power, and Society. Wiley-
Interscience New York, N.Y.
 Odum, E.P 1969. "The strategy of ecosystem development". in:
Science 164:262-270.
 Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, N. M. Johnson, D. W. Fisher and
R. S. Pierce. (1970). "Effects of forest cutting and herbicide
treatment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook watershed-
ecosystem". in: Ecological Monographs 40:23-47.
 Chapin, F.S. III, B.H., Walker, R.J., Hobbs, D.U.,Hooper,
J.H.,Lawton, O.E., Sala, and D., Tilman. (1997). "Biotic control
over the functioning of ecosystems". in: Science 277:500-504.
 Defries, R.S., J.A. Foley, and G.P. Asner. (2004). "Land-use
choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function". in:
Frontiers in ecology and environmental science. 2:249-257.
 Chrispeels, M.J. and Sadava, D. (1977). Plants, food, and
people. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.

39.  Quinones, M.A., N.E. Borlaug, C.R. Dowswell. (1997). "A
fertilizer-based green revolution for Africa". In: Replenishing
soil fertility in Africa. Soil Science Society of America special
publication number 51. Soil Science Society of America,
Madison, WI.
INSTITUTIONAL AREA

40. SECTOR -62 NOIDA
AN
IN –DEPTH STUDY
ON
ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM
SUBMITTED TO- SUBMITTED BY-
MISS (PROFF) KALPANA MANDAL JYOTI SHUKLA
HOD ,CHN M.SC 1ST YEAR
NIN NIN
NURSES ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN PREVENTING OUR
ECOSYSTEM AND ECOLOGY
1-Educate and motivating families ,community leader and people at large scale
about
 Prevention of smoke from various sources in homes ,neighbourhood and
community
 Importance of cross ventilation ,wet sweeping and moping .
 Avoidance of cigrrate smoking in homes and public places
 Safe and proper storing of chemical fertilizer ,DDT and bleaching powder
 Surveillance of the occurrence of airborne, waterborn disease
 Importance of safe water
 Purification of water at house hold level
 Safe storage and use of water
 Notification of timely treatment of water born diseases
 Maintenance of environmental sanitation

41.  Association of increasing community population with sanitation problem
and acceptance of small family norms
 The controlled use of electronic devices in there homes
 Use of X-ray when it is essential
2-Identifying air pollutant in the house ,neighbourhood ,village and town .This
may include smoke from various sources ,exhaust from automobiles ,vapor and
gases from chemical and pesticides
3-Creating awareness among families ,community leader and people at large scale
about these pollutant and thre adverse effect on human health ,animal and plants
4-Identifying pollution of water at source of water supply ,while it is distributed
,stored and used
5-Creating awareness among families and community leaders about water pollutant
,land pollution ,noise pollution and radioactive pollution
6-Giving information if there is any color ,odor ,turbidity ,taste change to water to
the concern authority
7-Create awareness regarding safe collection ,removal and disposle of dry and
waste water household ,neighbourhood and community
8-Educate and motivate people regarding prevention and control of noise pollution
at there household ,community etc
9-Identify source of noise pollution in there houses ,community
10- Inform community about the harmful effect radioactive pollution on health
11- The nurse sometime counsel the people who does not follow the norms of the
society for the proper well being
12- She will provide health education regarding deforestation ,how to prevent
ecology and our ecosystem and the laws made by government to prevent our
ecosystem.