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Basic Electro Mechanical
 Mehran University College
      Khairpur mirs
     Department of Civil Engineering




                             1
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
 Some familiar proper-ties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list
  can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity,
  modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity
  and elevation
i.       Intensive properties
        Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as
        temperature, pressure, and density.
ii.      Extensive properties
        Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the
        system. Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of extensive
        properties.

     STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
      At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.
      The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
       unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium
       experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.
      There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic
       equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.
                             Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                                                                   2
PROCESSES AND CYCLES
 Any change that a system undergoes from one
  equilibrium state to another is called a
  Process.
 The series of states through which a system
  passes during a process is called the Path of
  the process (Fig. 1–26)
 A system is said to have undergone a cycle if
  it returns to its initial state at the end of the
  process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final
  states are identical.
STEADY-FLOW PROCESS
 The term steady implies no change with time.
 A large number of engineering devices operate for
  long periods of time under the same conditions, and
  they are classified as steady-flow devices .
 Processes involving such devices can be represented
  reasonably well by a somewhat idealized process,
  called the steady-flow process

                         Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                        3
STEADY-FLOW PROCESS
 The term steady implies no change with time.
 A large number of engineering devices operate
  for long periods of time under the same
  conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow
  devices .
 Processes involving such devices can be
  represented reasonably well by a somewhat
  idealized process, called the steady-flow process
 which can be defined as a process during which a
  fluid flows through a control volume steadily
  (Fig. 1–29).
 The fluid properties can change from point to
  point within the control volume, but at any fixed
  point they remain the same during the entire
  process.
 Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the
  total energy content E of the control volume
  remain constant during a steady-flow process
  (Fig. 1–30).

                       Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                       4
Types of Processes


i.     Isobaric                               i.    Reversible
ii.    Isochoric                              ii.   Ireversible
iii.   Isothermal
iv.    Adiabatic




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                                                                  5
or
     or




    Thus
Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                          6
Thus




Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                          7
Adiabatic Process
 A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process (Fig.
  2–14). The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not
  to be passed.
 There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:
    i. Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can
        pass through the boundary, T
    ii. The system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and therefore
        there is no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.
 An adiabatic process should not be confused with an isothermal process. Even
  though there is no heat transfer during an adiabatic process, the energy content and
  thus the temperature of a system can still be changed by other means such as work.




                        Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                                                    8
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
   Reversible process
   A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any
    change on the surroundings (Fig. 6–30).
   Both the system and the surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of
    the reverse process.
   This is possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between the system and the
    surroundings is zero for the combined (original and reverse) process.
   Example: Once a cup of hot coffee cools, it will not heat up by retrieving the heat it
    lost from the surroundings. If it could, the surroundings, as well as the system (coffee),
    would be restored to their original condition, and this would be a reversible process.
   Engineers are interested in reversible processes because work-producing devices such as
    car engines and gas or steam turbines deliver the most work, and work-consuming
    devices such as compressors, fans, and pumps consume the least work when reversible
    processes are used instead of irreversible ones (Fig. 6–31).




                          Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                                                          9
      Irreversible processes
      Processes that are not reversible are called Irreversible processes.
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities.
i.     Friction.
ii.    Unrestrained expansion or uncontrolled expansion.
iii.   Mixing of two fluids.
iv.    Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference.
v.     Electric resistance.
vi.    Inelastic deformation of solids.
vii.   Chemical reactions.
      The presence of any of these effects cause a process irreversible. A reversible process
       involves none of these. Some of the frequently encountered irreversibilities are discussed
       briefly below.




                            Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                                                             10
Page 298 Cengel




Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                             11
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
 A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibility's
  occur within the boundaries of the system during the process.
 During an internally reversible process, a system proceeds
  through a series of equilibrium states, and when the process is
  reversed, the system passes through exactly the same
  equilibrium states while returning to its initial state.
 That is, the paths of the forward and reverse processes
  coincide for an internally reversible process.
 The quasi-equilibrium process is an example of an internally
  reversible process.
 A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibility's
  occur out-side the system boundaries during the process. Heat
  transfer between a reservoir and a system is an externally
  reversible process if the outer surface of the system is at the
  temperature of the reservoir..
 A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it
  involves no irreversibility's within the system or its
  surroundings (Fig. 6–35).
 A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a
  finite temperature difference, no non quasi-equilibrium
  changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects.
                            Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                                        12
Specific and Rate of a Quantity

                        WORK

                      ENERGY

                   ENTHALPY

                         HEAT

           SPECIFIC HEAT
 Specific heat at Constant Volume, Cv
 Specific heat at Constant Pressure, Cp
      Relation b/w Cp and Cv



   Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                           13
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
   The second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can have an efficiency of
    100 percent.
   Then one may ask, What is the highest efficiency that a heat engine can possibly have?
    Before we can answer this question,
   we need to define an idealized process first, which is called the reversible process.




                      Mucetcivil.blogspot.com
                                                                                       14
Thank
you
Love for all hatred
      Mucetcivil.blogspot.com           15

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Mechanical

  • 1. Basic Electro Mechanical Mehran University College Khairpur mirs Department of Civil Engineering 1
  • 2. PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM  Any characteristic of a system is called a property.  Some familiar proper-ties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation i. Intensive properties Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. ii. Extensive properties Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of extensive properties. STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM  At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed values.  The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.  There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied. Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 2
  • 3. PROCESSES AND CYCLES  Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a Process.  The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the Path of the process (Fig. 1–26)  A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical. STEADY-FLOW PROCESS  The term steady implies no change with time.  A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices .  Processes involving such devices can be represented reasonably well by a somewhat idealized process, called the steady-flow process Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 3
  • 4. STEADY-FLOW PROCESS  The term steady implies no change with time.  A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices .  Processes involving such devices can be represented reasonably well by a somewhat idealized process, called the steady-flow process  which can be defined as a process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily (Fig. 1–29).  The fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume, but at any fixed point they remain the same during the entire process.  Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the total energy content E of the control volume remain constant during a steady-flow process (Fig. 1–30). Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 4
  • 5. Types of Processes i. Isobaric i. Reversible ii. Isochoric ii. Ireversible iii. Isothermal iv. Adiabatic Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 5
  • 6. or or Thus Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 6
  • 8. Adiabatic Process  A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process (Fig. 2–14). The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be passed.  There are two ways a process can be adiabatic: i. Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass through the boundary, T ii. The system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and therefore there is no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.  An adiabatic process should not be confused with an isothermal process. Even though there is no heat transfer during an adiabatic process, the energy content and thus the temperature of a system can still be changed by other means such as work. Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 8
  • 9. REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES  Reversible process  A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any change on the surroundings (Fig. 6–30).  Both the system and the surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of the reverse process.  This is possible only if the net heat and net work exchange between the system and the surroundings is zero for the combined (original and reverse) process.  Example: Once a cup of hot coffee cools, it will not heat up by retrieving the heat it lost from the surroundings. If it could, the surroundings, as well as the system (coffee), would be restored to their original condition, and this would be a reversible process.  Engineers are interested in reversible processes because work-producing devices such as car engines and gas or steam turbines deliver the most work, and work-consuming devices such as compressors, fans, and pumps consume the least work when reversible processes are used instead of irreversible ones (Fig. 6–31). Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 9
  • 10. Irreversible processes  Processes that are not reversible are called Irreversible processes. The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities. i. Friction. ii. Unrestrained expansion or uncontrolled expansion. iii. Mixing of two fluids. iv. Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference. v. Electric resistance. vi. Inelastic deformation of solids. vii. Chemical reactions.  The presence of any of these effects cause a process irreversible. A reversible process involves none of these. Some of the frequently encountered irreversibilities are discussed briefly below. Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 10
  • 12. Internally and Externally Reversible Processes  A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibility's occur within the boundaries of the system during the process.  During an internally reversible process, a system proceeds through a series of equilibrium states, and when the process is reversed, the system passes through exactly the same equilibrium states while returning to its initial state.  That is, the paths of the forward and reverse processes coincide for an internally reversible process.  The quasi-equilibrium process is an example of an internally reversible process.  A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibility's occur out-side the system boundaries during the process. Heat transfer between a reservoir and a system is an externally reversible process if the outer surface of the system is at the temperature of the reservoir..  A process is called totally reversible, or simply reversible, if it involves no irreversibility's within the system or its surroundings (Fig. 6–35).  A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, no non quasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects. Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 12
  • 13. Specific and Rate of a Quantity WORK ENERGY ENTHALPY HEAT SPECIFIC HEAT  Specific heat at Constant Volume, Cv  Specific heat at Constant Pressure, Cp  Relation b/w Cp and Cv Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 13
  • 14. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS  The second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can have an efficiency of 100 percent.  Then one may ask, What is the highest efficiency that a heat engine can possibly have? Before we can answer this question,  we need to define an idealized process first, which is called the reversible process. Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 14
  • 15. Thank you Love for all hatred Mucetcivil.blogspot.com 15