Information literacy is a fundamental element of learning, scholarship, and research according to J. Secker & E. Coonan, as it defines the discerning scholar, informed citizen, and autonomous learner. A study in the US found that 45% of students showed no significant improvement in critical thinking, reasoning or writing after a four-year degree. Information literacy provides more effective learning, skills for lifelong learning, greater student engagement, employability and key transferable skills, as well as learning how to learn.