1. COEPULATION IN RANA This takes place during rainy season. The female frog sings to attract the male. The male , being stimulated by the songs will go after the female . When they are together, the female will carry the male on her back for several days until the ova reaches maturity, after which she will bring the male into water. In water, the female lays dozens of eggs into water. Then the male releases sperms into water to fertilize the ova- an example of external fertililization.

2. Sexual Reproduction in Rana sp.

4. MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN OF HUMAN SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW A pair of testes is enclosed in the scrotum (folded skin bag) which are located below the pelvis at the exterior of the body. Explain why. What is the function of Cowper’s gland? ( Highly coiled structure) Delivers sperms from testis into seminal vesicle Contains seminal fluid that nourishes the sperms.

5. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 1. Sperms are produced by meiotic division of germinal epithelial cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. 2. Millions of sperms are produced in each of the seminiferous tubule and there are thousands of seminiferous tubules in each testis. 4. Sperm sac / seminal vesicle contains seminal fluid. Immature sperms are stored and nourished here before released. Part of urinary system. 5. Matured sperms are released through urethra during ejaculation. 3. Sperms swim in the fluid of seminiferous tubules into epididymis, and then the sperm duct before entering the seminal vesicle/ sperm sac. Secretes fluid that activates the sperms Cowper’s gland-secretes alkaline fluids

6. SPERMATOGENESIS It is the process whereby sperms are produced from germinal epithelium cells in the wall of seminiferous tubules of testis by meiosis. One seminiferous tubul of testis. Testis showing seiniferous tubules First meiotic division

7. SPERMATOGENESIS

8. TESTIS AND SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES Cell P Cell division X Cell Q Cell division X Cell division Y1 Cell R Cell S Cell division Y2 2n 2n 2n n n Cell T

9. SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES AND THE SPERM (Sertoli cell) Lumen containing fluid Sertoli cells nourish the immature sperms in the seminiferous tubules. The sperms later swim to the seminal vesicle through epididymis and sperm duct ( vas deferens)

10. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 1. Receives and stores the ovum prior to fertilization. It contains fluid and cilia . Beating of cilia help to move the ovum down the Fallopian tube into uterus 2. Uterus is thick-walled and serves as a place for implantation of the embrio. 3. A muscular tube through which seminal fluid and sperms enter the uterus 4. A pair of avaries is suspended in the coelomic cavity and they are covered by the Fallopian funnels. # # 5. Secondary Oocyte released by the ovary enters the fallopian tube through Fallopian funnels.

11. SECTION THROUGH OVARY Secretion of FSH hormone ( by pituitary gland) stimulates the development of one follicle in the ovary and that is the start of Oogenesis, the process involved in the production of ovum in ovary. Unlike spermatogenesis, Oogenesis results in the formation of a single ovum.

12. OOGENESIS Growing follicle Oogenesis

15. MENSTRUAL CYCLE

17. SEQUENCE IN ANIMAL/HUMAN DEVELOPMENT #Not to be discussed in detail (not included in the syllabus) # # # morula Zygote (fertilized egg) undergoes several mitosis to form a solid spherical mass of cells, morula which later enters blastocyst stage and finally become implanted in the uterine wall. In human, blastula produces HCGT hormone which serve the function of progestrone prior the formation of placenta. HCGT- human chorionic gonadotrophic hormone

18. GASTRULATION GASTRULATION # Extra knowledge (not to be discussed)

20. FERTILIZATION 1. Eplain the following: ovulation, fertilization, cleavage of the embryo, blastocyst and implantation process.

22. PLACENTATION Figure shows a foetus in amniotic sac and the structure of a human placenta. Fluid X Explain the function of amniotic fluid. vagina

25. 1. Explain the implantation process. 2. How does a woman know she is conceived ( at earlier stage)?

27. FOETAL DEVELOPMENT

28. SECTION THROUGH HUMAN FETUS IN UTERUS Amniotic fluid

31. CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

32. CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

33. CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

34. In-vitro fertilization Alternative to in-vitro fertilization, insemination in animals is also carried out, especially in animals husbandry. The fallpian tube / oviduct is cut and tied at both cut ends to ensure that there will be no sperms arrived at the ovums. Spermicide is a chemical used to kill the sperms.

35. IUD is a coiled structure, inserted into the uterus, normally by a trained nurses / doctors. This device vibrates during sexual intercourse, thereby preventing spems from arriving at the ovums in the oviduct. The cap prevents sperms from entering the uterus and thus the oviduct.

36. NATURAL METHOD Avoid sexual intercourse during fertile phase

37. Birth Control Methods 1 2 3 4 5 Explain each of the birth control methods as shown in the figure.

39. REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

40. POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

41. ALTERATION OF GENERATION

42. Life cycle of Angiospermae

43. FORMATION OF EMBRIO SAC

44. Sexual Reproduction in Angiospermophyta

45. Growth of pollen tube

46. SEED DEVELOPMENT Double fertilization in the ovary: Male nucleus 1(n) + ovum(n) Zygote(2n) embryo (2n) Male nucleus 2 (n) + 2 polar nucleus (n+n) endosperm (3n) (food storage for the embryo)

47. DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT EBRYO

49. Phylum Pteridophyta : Reproductive Structures Sorus of Fern Sporangium (2n) bearing haploid spores

50. GROWTH Growth is a process involving the increase in the number of cells, size, complexity and function of an organism which are irreversible . Complexity of cell refers to changes in the shape, structure and organisation of the cell to form a tissue and an organ. nucleus Cell wall Water is absorbed A small vacuole is formed Cell division by mitosis Increase in cell size

51. GROWTH OF CELLS CELL DIFFERENTIATION Guard cell and stomata Mesophyll cell phloem xylem Parencymatous cell of cortex

54. THE GROWTH ZONE IN A PLANT SHOOT Zone of cell division/ growth zone Zone of cell elongation Zone of cell differentiation Matured tissue Leaf primordium xylem phloem cambium Apical meristem -produces leaf primordium which protects the meristematic tissue Axial bud -containing cells which are capable to divide to form side branches.

55. THE GROWTH ZONE IN A PLANT ROOT Root hair phloem xylem Matured tissue Zone of cell division/ growth zone Zone of cell differentiation Zone of cell elongation cortex Apical Meristem Root cap

56. MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH The parameter usually used to measure growth in a multicellular organism is the changes in length, dry mass or height with respect to time. Eg. changes in the length of the tail, the height of a plant or humans, the length of a fruit or a diameter of the leaf can be used in the measurement of growth of organisms. Another parameter of growth is dry mass. Dry mass is the mass of ( partly / the whole) organism when water is completely widthdrawn from the organism by drying (eg. in an oven / temperature about 110 0 C) until the last few measurements of mass are unchanged. Fresh weight is not suitable. Why? Measurement of dry mass is more accurate in the measurement of growth because it is possible to get more than one readings in order to obtain an average reading. On the other hand, it has the advantage too because the organisms has to be destroyed , they should be of about the same age and size at the time of the experiment.

57. GROWTH IN HUMANS Months birth years ( foetus)

58. GROWTH CURVE OF A HUMAN Time / year Growth ( height/ weight) At birth Rapid growth Slow growth Very rapid growth Very little growth death senescence adult / Adolescence / childhood baby

59. GROWTH OF HUMAN ORGANS The difference in relative growth rate of the human body, heart and brain. Age/year body heart brain Growth /part of body weight at birth

60. GROWTH CURVE OF HUMANS Age / month Height / cm foetus 7 weeks until birth baby Embryo (0-6 weeks)

61. GRWTH OF A BOY AND A GIRL Rate of increse in height Kadar pertambahan berat Age / years Height / cm boy girl Fresh weight Rate of increse in weight boy girl Age / years

66. PERINGKAT PERTUMBUHAN

67. PERINGKAT PERTUMBUHAN 1. Bandingkan pertumbuhan dalam : a) Haiwan dan tumbuhan b) Haiwan berangka luar dan haiwan berangka dalam 2. Bagaimana anda mengukur kadar pertumbuhan mikroorganisma seperti bakteria?

70. Kajian pertumbuhan tikus

72. PERTUMBUHAN TUMBUHAN

73. ZON PERTUMBUHAN DALAM TUMBUHAN Pertumbuhan berlaku dalam zon meristem apeks dan meristem sisi ( tisu kambium ) melalui pembahagian sel-sel menghasilkan banyak sel-sel baru., menyebabkan pertambahan panjang / ketinggian dan ukur lilit batang / akar 3 zon pertumbuhan dalam akar:

74. Zon pertumbuhan dalam pucuk

75. Penyediaan keratan membujur akar bawang menunjukkan mitosis

79. Perbandingan tumbuhan monokot. dan dikot.

81. TEKNOLOGI PEMBIAKAN SEKS