This presentation is all about the epic singers of kalahandi who were the caste genealogists of many land lords and myth maker of many caste and tribes. Now they earn their livelihood by manual labor and migration. Still they have not forgotten the culture they have created in past.This is the critical analysis of the epic singers of a land where the collective life and togetherness is maintained by the singers.
Mahendra Kumar Mishra
mkmfolk@gmail.com
1. Changing Scenario
of Ethnic Oral Epics Singers
and social functions of oral epics
(In the Context of Kalahandi)
Dr Mahendra K Mishra
Director
Tribal Research Center,
Orissa,India
mkmfolk@gmail.com
9437636436
2. Oral Tradition in India
It was a story of 1500 years ago.
A story tellers came to a kings’ court to tell his story.
King asked him - what is the language of the story ?
The story teller said- it is paishachi - my mother tongue.
The court poets and the council laughed at him.
The king said , ‘ Sanskrit is the language of the court,We
don’t recognize any other language here. You can go.’
Collecting his palm leaf manuscript the story tellers left the
court, and came back to the forest.
3. He started telling the story to the
birds and animals in the forest. He
prepared fire and around him
there were birds and animals of the
forest to listen to him attentively.
He was reading out the story from
each palm leaf and was throwing
the page, one after another, in to the
fire.
The birds and animals were
listening to him forgetting their food
and drink.
4. In the dining table the king found that the
quality of the food served was deteriorating
On enquiry, the king found that, all the birds and
animals of the forest were engaged in listening
the story and have forgotten to take food. So
the hunter don’t get good prey and the supply
of food is affected by it.
On further enquiry , the king could know that
the story teller was no one but Gunadhya – the
great story teller and a poet of the time.
5. The king could realized his mistake and ran in to the
forest . He found the birds and animals around the fire
listening the story from the person whom he met in
the court.The man was throwing the pages of his
manuscripts one after another.
The king shouted, Stop it, Gunadhya, I have realized my
mistake. Please don’t burn the knowledge.
But Gunadhya, with a smile, replied the king , I have
my own subjects in this forest who have respected
this knowledge leaving their food and drink. What
use of the royal patronage when the whole universe is
ready to listen to me. I don’t mind if all the
knowledhes are burnt in the fire.
The king snatched the manuscripts from Gunadhya
and got it publisised which is now known as
Brhadkatha( the great story ) in India.
6. The question after this story is
◦ Do the local knowledge still patronized by the
people in power? May it be Monarchy or
democracy ?
◦ Do all the indigenous knowledge have the same
status with the language of power?
◦ Do the people in high culture really respect the
knowledge of the people in peripheries?
◦ Are the knowledge that is created from the
experiences of the people are properly
understood by the people in power and
considered as the national property ?
7. Views
from
the
History
There is a division between the Aryans and the tribal in Indian
canons. Equally the disparity between the language of power and
the language of people.
The canons and history of India spells out that the Aryans were
God and their language was Sanskrit.The era was the era of
the Gods and the Kings.
The Non Aryans were narrated as Asura, Nishada,Rakshasa,
Anarya – all for the tribals of the country.
The myths and epics of written Sanskrit has narrated the Tribals as
demons and the story of their defeat and displacement.
The Aryans wrote their history of victory and down graded the
rich values of the tribals
8. Ethnic Scenario in India
There are 623 scheduledTribes in India
Out of them 74 are endangered in respect of
their land, language and values
Their culture is eroded in the name of mainstreaming
Their knowledge system is also under destruction
This lead to cultural and linguistic genocide.
9. Tribal History
Till now – Indian history has not given
due justice to the tribal history.
Their knowledge system is hardly
understood and studied in the
mainstream culture.
Their land, language , knowledge and
culture is gradually eroded.
They don’t have the history of their own
, except in their contemporary cultural
practices
10. Land of the Man
The Lost Tribal Identity
Indian land was known
with the names of the
ancient tribal communities
.They were
Gondwana land,
Bhilwada,
Kondhan Desh
Santal Pragana
Bhuiyan Peedha
Saora Mandal and many more..
11. Each ethnic group had a self sufficient territory
and land, own language and self rule and has
clan based territories. Land and language was
the marker of their identity.
But their land was distributed to many modern
states across the time and their history was
distorted.They were subjugated , displaced and
pushed out in to the forest land.
Not only this they were acculturated with the
values that was imposed by the outsider
15. Kalahandi as a Tribal Land
in 1876 total population was 1, 22,ooo and the
percentage of tribal was 75 .( 88000 people were
Kondh)
In 2001 total population is 13,00,000 and tribal
population is 30 %.
How the percentage of 75 reduced to 30 % ?
What was the historical reasons that the
indigenous people reduced
The name of the land was Kandhan Desh ( Kondh
land) is changed to kamala amandala and then
kalahandi.
I am presenting the tribal epics of Kalahandi
The major tribes are the Gonds and the Kondhs.
16. Who are the Epic Singers?
A. Caste nominated bards are the
Epic Singers
Parghania for the Gonds
Bogua and Marals for the Kondhs
Ghogia/Jachak/Birthia for the Gauds
Bhat for the Banjara
17. Tribal Oral tradition
In addition to songs and tales, myths and
legends , proverbs and riddles, tribal
people have their caste genealogies and
sacred myths and epics
They have priests , singers and
storytellers.
Some knowledge are known to every
body and some knowledge are esoteric
18. Epic Singers of Kalahandi
The epic singers of Kalahandi may broadly be
categorized under the following heads.
Ethnic singer or professional caste-bard.
Castes and tribes having no bardic tradition
but singing the epic song.
Priest group in tribal community-male and
female priest.
Singers independent to castes and tribes.
19. 1. ETHNIC SINGERS OR PROFESSIONAL CASTE
BARD: (Table –1)
Tribe Ethnic Bard Musical
Instruments
Myth / Epics
GOND ,
BHATRA
PARGHANIA,
PRADHAN
KIKRI, PEPRE(
fiddle)
Budharaja myth
ChitalSingh
epic
Hirakhan
Chhatri
Luhagundi
King and 8
epics
KONDH BOGUA,
MARAL DHUNDHUNI
A( One
stringed
instrument)
Gova- creation
myth
Epic of Bhima,
Epic of
Namgmati –
Raajaphulia
Manduka Majhi
20. 1. ETHNIC SINGERS OR PROFESSIONAL CASTE BARD: (Table
–1)
Tribe Ethnic Bard Musical
Instruments
Myth / Epics
BINJHAL BIRTHIA MANDAL JATI JANAM
BORASAMBHAR
KING , MYTH OF
LION -MAN
BANJARA BHAT DHAP MITHU BHUKHIA
SEWABHAYA MYTH
LAKHABANJARA EPIC
SOHBANAYAK EPIC
SIRARAM NAYAK EPIC
RAJA ISALU EPIC
RAMJI HUNA SATI –
EPIC
RAMA HERU EPIC
21. 1. ETHNIC SINGERS OR PROFESSIONAL CASTE
BARD: (Table –1)
CASTE CASTE BARD Musical
Instruments
Myth / Epics
GAUR, GAUD GHIGIA ,
JACHAK ,
BANS, BRAHMA
VEENA
KHARATMAL 12
CYCLES OF
EPIC FOR 12
BROTHERS
DOM BHAT , BIRTHIA DAMBRU MARDABA KING
LANKA GADA
GEET
EPIC OF
BROTHER SISTER
INCEST
22. II. CASTES /TRIBESWITHOUT BARDICTRADITION, BUT
SING EPIC SONGS:
CAS
TE
TRIB
E
Epic songs/culture Hero and Narration on
Supreme Gods.
Bhunjia Origin of Bhunjia, Kachra Dhurua, a culture Hero of the Bhunjias.
Paharia(
Kamar)
Bad Devtar Khena (Origin myth). Gandhu Paradhiya (Culture Hero).
Sabar Dance, the song of tattooing, romance epic of Oriya literature, Sashisena,
Jarasabar Vidyapati Lalita, origin of Lord Jagannath.
Teli Bhat Caste origin from Lord Siva and Parvati, Caste occupation, ritural song
“marriage of Gods and Goddesses” (Siva & Parvati).
Keut(Fi
sher
folk)
Kaivarta Geeta – Origin of Kaivarta caste from Brahma and Vishnu,
(associated with sage Parasara, father of Vayasa)
23. III.PRIESTS/PRIESTESS ATTACHEDTO
CASTE ANDTRIBE:
Tribe Priest Shaman Myths &Sacred
Epics
Function
Gond Jhankar
Ghogien
Dihari Budharaja
myth
Cultivation of
paddy by Lord
Shiva
singing of
ancestor
genealogies
Supreme God
/Ancestor
worship
Appeasing the
ancestors
Kondh Jani ( 3)
Gova jani Khut
Jani Jog jani
Disari Earth Mother
goddess and Sun God
Buffalo sacrifice
Nature worship
rain God Bhima
worship
24. III.PRIESTS/PRIESTESS ATTACHEDTO CASTE
ANDTRIBE:
Tribe Priest Shaman Myths
&Sacred
Epics
Function
Kondh-
Paraja
Bhunjia
Female
priest -
Gurumai
Gurumai Bhima Sidi,
Charela geet
Sunadi geet
Ample
harvest ,
divination,
safety of
villagers
25. IV.PROFESSIONAL SINGERS
Category Singers Epics musical
instruments
function
professional Debgunia
Birth of
Goddess
of wealth
- Laxmi
Brahma
veena – harp
Ample harvest
and wealth ,
paddy
cultivation
Basidevia
Brahmin
Singing of
the
Ramayana
kikri ( fidel) Entertainment
and preaching
of the
Ramayana
26. IV.Professional Singers
Category Singers Epics musical
instruments
function
Occasional Geetkudia
( male
singer)
heroic
epics ,
social
events
Ram kathi , entertain
ment ,
dance and
singing
during
mirrage
ceremony
Geetkudien
(femalesinger)
27. Oral Epics
Oral epic is tradition bound
Patronized by community to perpetuate the caste
genealogies and caste glories
It is associated with the culture of a community
It is mythical/legendary and imaginary
Each ethnic group has his own caste genealogies and
epics
They have ethnic singers/priests
28. Nature of Oral Epics:
It is a sung narrative(mixed with prose and poetry)
Clan bard/ ethnic singer perform the song
Accompanied with musical instruments
Story about caste originator/ origin of gods and
goddesses/culture heroes/royal dynasties
Story of migration and settlement of ethnic group
Bear the cultural heritage of the ethnic group
It is supernatural: blend of reality and imagination
29. Mythical Epics
Creation of the Universe, earth, and origin of the gods
and goddesses, caste origin, validation of gods and their
worship by the clans
Story of origin, marriage and family of different gods and
goddesses in a territory
Oral performance of myths during ritual performance
Community believe it to be true and follow the socio-
religious rules that gives them a world view of their
cultural reality
30. Culture Heroes:
Based on the religious world view and social
values, the ethnic singer create culture heroes
in their mind
It is tradition bound retained in the mental text
of the singers
There is a pattern of identifying a hero in a
particular community
This is based on invention,talent, strength.After
attending many tests,the hero wins and become
the role model for the community
Conflict in family for land and property are
two major factors of creating a culture hero.
31. Characteristic of Culture Heroes
Supernatural, miraculous, magical
Divine support
Enormous strength to over come obstacles
Witty and intelligent
Wins in love and war
Innovative in ethnic occupations
Have the ability to tackle any difficult situation( may
be divine or human)
32. Why Oral Epics
To remember caste glory
To know the caste genealogies orally (through
arrangement /chronologies of characters and
events)
To respect the clan gods and goddesses/
worship the ancestors and energize the
contemporary generations
Associating the clan history with the present
clan lineage
Recite the epics during marriage ceremony to
glorify the heroic actions of the
ancestors/culture heroes
Learning from the ancestors story
33. Narrative Territory of Clan Bard
Parghania ( Epics to Ontology )
It is said that 84 villages constitutes a Parghana
with a king.
They use to live on their clan masters donation
A parghania consider the territory of his clan
masters as his own narrative territory.
Out of eight ‘Saga’ (Clan) Gonds , eight clan bards
each clan bard serves his own clan master’s
territory as his own occupation areas.
No other clan bard enters other than his or her
clan master’s house.
34. Caste Genealogies
Caste genealogies are recorded and maintained
by the ethnic singers
Parghania maintain Gond genealogy: Purja
Similarly other tribes have their own oral
history
This is related to their gods and first
progenitor,
This is based on their migration and settlement,
some time struggle with other caste and win
over them
Distribution of Gods among the clans
35. Functions of Ethnic Singers
Singing the clan based creation myth, clan
genealogies , origin of the castes,origin of
gods and goddesses,migration, settlement,
story of the clan heroes
Attending rites de passage of the clan
masters
Annual tour to the houses of the clan
masters( confined to one clan only)
Perform epic story of the clan and
other songs , stories, music, etc.
36. Social function
The bards attend their clan master’s social
function such as birth , marriage ,death
rituals, and beg/ demand alms.
The male bards use to sing the caste
genealogies during the death ceremony
of a person
He also sing the heroic epic during the
marriage ceremony of the Gond family
The caste genealogies are re cited
during death rituals, as well as clan rituals(
Pitori Puja – ancestor worship)
37. Bard’s identity
The clan bard Parghanias identify
themselves as the younger brother of the
Gonds and claim their common ancestry.
But the Gonds disagree with it.They say that
they are superior and in no way their clan
bards are equal to them.
Instead, since the Gond bards accept alms,
(Sukdan, bachhadan etc.) from their Gond
clan master, the Gonds say that the
parghanias are inferior caste group, of course
emerged from their caste.
38. PURJA: GOND CASTE
GENEOLOGY
The caste genealogies, caste myth, oral epics
and hymns are sung by the bards in a
language called “Gondi”.
The language is not spoken except in the
religious ceremonies. It clearly indicates that
the caste myths, genealogies are esoteric
texts, which is not shared by other caste
group, even a caste myth is not sung by a
singer in another clan group, as though both
the clan belong to Gond caste.
39. “ PURJA” – is the caste genealogy of the
Gonds. It is the origin myth created by
the supreme God of the Gonds and the
first progenitor was Linga Deo who
listens to it. Linga Deo wanted to be
popularized and thereafter his first
servant become the parghania who knew
all these myths and genealogies.
40. It is mandatory for each Gond family / Clan to listen
Purja from their Parghania at least once in a year.
During the marriage, death rituals and invoking the
ancestor spirit “Duma” Purja plays an important role
to remember the past glory of the Gonds.
Most of the Purja’s are oral history and caste
genealogies.
In later part of 19th century and 1st five decades of
20th century some palm leaf scriber belonging to
pastoral community (Goud) and Bairagi community
used to write the Gond Purja in palm leaf manuscript.
After this the purja was written in pen and paper.
41. Bards as younger brother of the Clan
Chief
The Parghanias consider themselves as
the younger brother of the Gonds. So
there is a proverb that ,”the Gonds are
elder brother, so they hold the ‘Chhatra’ –
an umbrella over the throne – as the
symbol of administrative power, and the
younger brother hold the “Vana” – flag
and the musical instrument ‘ Kikri’ as the
symbol of singing the eulogy of the elder
brother.
42. Wel coming the Bards by the clan
chief
Baradharguma
Suradhar sandu
Gatidar bajarsri
Ajira Chanchala
Inju kaike”
The esoteric meaning of the above recitation is
known to parghania only.
The clan master / patron replies:
“ Oh, my God has appeared. Let’s worship him
with perfume , molasses and ghee”.
43. Parghania says:
“O Majhi, I have come to you.You have got this God from your
ancestors.You have to obey your God.You pay the alms for
your betterment”.
Then the chief offers him a jug of water and tobacco and
invites him. This is the symbol of honour. If they delay in
inviting, the
bard may feel offended.They also worship the musical
instruments as the symbol of their clan God.
The bards use to sing the song depending on the rituals and
occasion. If it is a death rituals they sing caste genealogies
and the glory of ancestor story.
If it is a marriage ceremony , they sing the glory of their
culture heroes., legendary hero if their community.
44. The patron gives gold, cow, bullocks, rice, paddy, salt,
turmeric, chilly etc and says,“Babu, this much is with me
please be happy with this. I will satisfy you next year”.
The Parghania bless the patron,“Chaturbhuj Budhadev
will keep you happy.You will lead and win every where”.
Then again the Parghania recite his Gondi hymn –
Baradhar guma:………
After 15 days or so the Bard return to his home.
45. Parghania as epic singer and
story teller
In the night, at around 8.00 P.M. to 9.00 P.M. all the people of
the Gond community assemble in one place.The tribal
chief worship the musical instrument.
Thereafter the Parghania recites the worship and eulogy of
the Gond supreme Gods Chaturbhuja Budhadeo, Linga Deo
and Jangha Deo.
After that, the Parghania, assisted by two to three young
singers start singing the Purja – the Gond caste genealogies.
The audience believes the narration to be true.They also
remember the caste lineage.The older persons in the Gond
community also recapitulate the accurate caste lineage and
share with the Parghania.
46. The audience enjoys the narration of the
Parghania.They feel glorified with the
heroic deeds of the Gond Gods and
heroes.The categories of narratives
recited by the Parghanias are as
followings:
47. Sacred narratives:
Creation myth of the Universe.
Creation myth of the Gods / Goddesses
Creation of the earth, birds, animals.
Shiva – Mahadev as the first cultivator
Purja caste genealogies.
48. Purja
One such ‘Purja’ is collected from Sri
Parsuram Majhi, Malpada of Sinapali Block
in Kalahandi district reflects the nature of
its structure, narration and the function.
This Purja reveals how the Gonds came
from Bastar and Chhatishgarh to
Kalahandi.The content area found in the
Purja is:
49. Distribution of Gond Gods and
Goddesses in the Gond administrative
territories. Family relation of the Gond
Gods and Goddesses, distribution of land
and place (Gadi), worship of Gonds to the
Gods and Goddesses according to their
clan. Categories of foods, dresses, and
offerings given to the Gond Gods and
Goddesses according to their individual
tastes.
50. Ethnic status of the Gonds:The superior
Gonds and inferior Gonds in terms of their
origin and their occupation are described in
the Purja. Out of 8 ‘Saga’ Gonds the Markam
and the Netam Gonds are superior and the
rest of the Gonds are comparatively inferior.
The kinship relation is also determined in
the Purja, and description is found, whether
the marriage between two different Gond
clans is possible or not.
51. The history of clan migration from one
place to the other and forming of new
settlement is found in the Purja.The
struggle of the Gonds with other tribes
during their migration and settlement is
described in the Purja.They also describe
the first progenitor and the first Gond
hero who defeated other tribes and saved
their Gond clan.
52. In order to keep the caste genealogy
chronologically the time factor is retained
through the series of important events.
For instance, the events of the Gond
heroes are remembered by the
Parghanias and it is through the
association of events that the chronology
of the Gond oral history is maintained.
53. Social rules are described in the Purja.
Most of the Gonds are belong to breast
milk brothers (Dud bhai) and institution
of marriage is not allowed between these
two Dudbhai clans. So in order to be
aware of their caste status and the
approved marriage relation between the
Gonds, the Purja is referred.
54. Unless and until the caste genealogies are
agreed and declared as correct, the
narrations of the Parghanias are
sometimes rejected.The “sianlog” –
senior persons of Gond community
suggests the Parghania to correct the
narrative events. So that the right oral
history and chronology will be
maintained.
56. Current Sceneario
Modernity, westernization, industrialization, modern
education and globalization has left little place
to genres like oral epics/myths
Ethnic singers are in cross road in their identity,
neither they are aware of the traditional knowledge,
or ready to abandon the identity of a singer.
Scholars quest for oral tradition has made them
aware of the importance of their knowledge,but
unless the caste patron approves, they are not
ready to share.
They consider the caste genealogies as esoteric
knowledge,only should be within their private
domain
57. Professional singers and their current
situation
Singers are unable, in a changing environment, to
adapt the singing profession they once learned,
but still stored in their memories
Many genres of folklore have vanished forever
with the passing of the last tradition-bearers
familiar with them.
Now no singer of 60s are available to us to
listen to their songs of glory
Musical instruments are not available or of no
use
58. Lack of Patronization
Now a days ethnic singers are lacking
patronization
Clan masters don't patronize them
Traditional singing is replaced with Hindi
films during marriage/ birth rituals etc.
Mode of entertainment became more
visual than aural, elders did not patronize
their community knowledge
Modern education gave them new identity
than earlier one
59. Lack of Patronization
Now a days ethnic singers are lacking
patronization
Clan masters don't patronize them
Traditional singing is replaced with Hindi
films during marriage/ birth rituals etc.
Mode of entertainment became more
visual than aural, elders did not patronize
their community knowledge
Modern education gave them new
identity than earlier one
60. Singers as passive tradition-bearers ,Why?
No clan support
Unable to adjust with new social life
Adoption of labour and agriculture, rural employment
No training and education on traditional singing ,
music
Hesitate to write / perform the knowledge in new
socio-cultural situation which could be the source of
regenerating the cultural resources
No knowledge about the importance of their
performance as the borrower of human culture.
61. Observation:
The socio-cultural aspects of the epics are
1.The epics represents the pre agricultural society
of Kalahandi
2.It represent the initiation of agricultural society
( invention of iron, plough, cutting forest and
leveling land( sunabeda, rupabeda)
3.Invention and discoveries: iron, liquor,
4.Etiological myths: why the paddy looked black
and yellow, why the tiger is afraid of the wild
dogs? why there is worms in the fig fruit etc.
62. How to Revitalize?
Community support:Approval of jati maha sabha
to document the social and oral history of
tribes and castes
Bring the content in audio, video and print
form
Patronize the singers through recognition,
reward and pension( Karnataka example)
Using oral tradition as the means of political
gain, ethnic identity, group solidarity,and maintain
ethnic culture.
63. Dual Responsibilities:
Sensitizing the community on safeguarding the
oral epics/ myths/caste genealogies so that they
will patronizing the singers
Recognizing the singers in public domain
Studying the oral epic genre as a means of
understanding the ethnic culture as well as use
them for socio-cultural and socio-political
regeneration
A place where academic domain contribute to
the community from where the oral tradition
has been derived
and giving back to the community
64. Application
Traditional performance in the community
performance in changing situation:
Use in research ( anthropology, history,
linguistics, literature , music etc.)
Use for ethnic identity and achieve
power (land, culture and language)
Use in education ( cultural curriculum)
65. Conclusion
From 1500 years ago till now – the knowledge
of the singers and the languages of the
communities are still subjugated and not
properly understood as the resources of human
property.
The Kings and sages have gone, peoples rule
has come , but still the knowledge and language of
the tribal / ethnic communities are in constant
threats, the threats of hegemony and the
threats of cultural genocide.
It is essential to maintain cultural bio diversity and
therefore knowledge from the epics is important
to understand the alchemy of nature.