Comparative Aesthetics: Occidental and Oriental

Mihir Bholey, PhD
Assoc. Senior Faculty &
Coordinator, PG Science & Liberal Arts
National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad, INDIA

Comparative Aesthetics
• Comparative aesthetics: a branch of philosophy which indulges into
comparing aesthetic concepts, principles and practices in diverse cultural
settings
• It discusses the manner in which the idea of aesthetics and beauty are
perceived and conceived in different cultures around the world and how
they influence people‟s attitude towards refinement of expression
• It‟s a kind of critical attitude towards appreciating the esoteric and
intrinsic nature of art beyond the psychological and cultural conditioning of
mind
• As a branch of philosophy it compares the aesthetic concepts and practices
of different cultures. It explores how cultures conceive of the aesthetic
dimension of life in general and art in particular and what they consider
sub-standard and what sublime
MihirBholey,PhDNIDAhmedabadINDIA
2

Aesthetics Defined
• Aesthetics, (sometimes spelled esthetics) is the
philosophical study of beauty and taste
• Also refers to the philosophy of art concerned with
the nature of art and the concepts which help interpret and
evaluate individual works of art
• As a philosophy, aesthetics refers to the study of sensory
principles – in other words judgment or evaluation by the
senses
3

• The Greek original of this word „aisthesis‟ means „
sensation‟ and „reaction to external stimuli‟
• Semantically in modern English it means something
that can appeal to the senses
• As the meaning is subjected to sensory perception, the
definitions are often fluid, varied and subjective,
differing between people and cultures
4

• The word aesthetics, derived from Greek „aisthanomai‟ is
attributed to Alexander Baumgarten (1714-1762)
• Baumgarten introduced aesthetics in his Halle master's
thesis to mean „epistêmê aisthetikê‟, or the science of
what is sensed and imagined (Baumgarten, Meditationes CXVI, pp. 86-7)
• Aesthetics consists of two parts: the philosophy of art, and
the philosophy of the aesthetic experience and character
of objects or phenomena that are not art
Aesthetics: the Western Tradition
5

• Even without a nomenclature aesthetics was integral to
philosophy
• In the Platonic discourse the educational value of the
works of art was questioned in the Republic (380 BC)
• Plato's (427-347 BC) main opposition to art was its
cognitively uselessness, trading in mere images of
particulars rather than universal truths
• "All mimesis are ruinous to the understanding of the
hearers, and the knowledge of their true nature is the
only antidote to them" (595a, Book X)
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• Aristotle (384-322 BC) tried to defended art and
aesthetics in Poetics
• He contrariwise felt that arts, or at least poetry, depict
universal truths in more palpable forms, unlike for
example, history, which concerns only with particular
facts (Aristotle, Poetics, Chapter-9)
• The arts can also be important to the development of
morality by revealing important moral truths; the other
pole of Plato's doubts
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• Plato‟s theory of Mimesis, says by nature all art is
mimetic; it‟s an imitation of life
• He considered „idea‟ as the ultimate reality and since
art imitates idea it becomes imitation of reality
• Gave more credence to philosophy as philosophy deals
with the ideas while poetry with illusion
• Thus to Plato arts of all kind become things which are
twice removed from reality
8

Is Plato Antagonistic to Poetry and Aesthetics?
• Plato calls poetry an imitation thrice removed from the
truth, and Homer as well as the dramatic poets imitators
• Nevertheless, he himself is an artist gifted with impressive
poetic spirit, never misses a chance to quote poets
• Sometimes even seems to attribute their art to divine
inspiration or a kind of madness
• In his ideal state a large part of the education of the young
is based on the study of certain kinds of poetry
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• Despite his apparent expulsion of the poets and poetry
in the Republic he even says:
“And I suppose we shall also allow those of her
patrons who are lovers of poetry without being
poets to advocate her cause in prose by
maintaining that poetry is not only pleasurable,
but profitable in its bearings upon governments
and upon human life; and we shall listen to
everybody. For we shall be gainers, I presume, if
poetry can be proved to be profitable as well as
pleasurable.” (Republic: Chapter X, Pg. 340)
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• A great deal of misunderstanding about Plato's views
about poetry is due to the partial examination of his
writings and to assume it the core of Platonic
philosophy
• There‟re people who consider that the Republic only
lambasts the poets and denies poetry all access to truth
• There‟re others who think contrary to Republic Plato‟s
Phaedrus is the apotheosis of poetic madness, and with
Phaedrus Plato intended to dethrone the reason
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• Much of the conflict in Plato‟s doctrine on art is on account
of „original‟ and „imitation‟
• Philosophy being more original than poetry
• But when it comes to „divine madness‟ that often drives the
poetry, the originality of idea can‟t be questioned
• „Divine madness‟ being a gift of gods, some of the best
things we have including poetry
• The question is how does then one justify divine as imitation
or copy?
The Conflict of Original and Imitation
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Longinus and the Idea of Sublime
• Cassius Longinus‟s (Circa 1st -3rd Century AD) treatises were
first published in mid 16th century
• His concept of sublime which became more popular during
the 18th century; overwhelms the theory of art, aesthetic
and philosophy of the western world
• Takes the philosophical and metaphysical discussion of Plato
and Aristotle on art to a more realistic and measurable plane
• In other words; offers methods to convert the esoteric into
empirical
13

• Longinus established the idea and the purpose of
sublime in art. In his view artistic genius was the skill of
metaphor
• Reiterated Plato and Aristotle in a way but differed
from their notion of the elements of literary style as
ornamental and subordinated to thought and passion
• Longinus measured the effect of artistic genius through
a kind of language which was expressive, lofty and
elevated
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• Longinus believed “Nothing is poetry unless it transports”,
thereby explained the meaning of sublime
• In other words, the purpose of poetry is to transport and
elevate the soul
• The characteristics of sublime are: it pleases; pleases
immediately; pleases all; pleases all the time and place; and
pleases forever
• According to him true sublime is one which “arises out of
lofty ideas clothed in lofty language”
Sublime: What’s the Big Idea?
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Sources of Sublimity
Sublimity has five cardinal sources:
1. Grander of thought
2. Capacity for strong emotions
3. Certain kinds of figures of speech
4. Nobility of diction; and
5. Dignity of composition
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Obstacles to Sublimity
Longinus finds four obstacles namely:
1. turgidity- the use of bombastic language
2. puerility- the opposite of turgidity, thoroughly low
in nature
3. frigidity- is about pedantic thought; and
4. false emotion- is about display of emotions where
none exist
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Measuring Sublimity of a Work
Longinus gave the following criteria to measure sublimity
of a work. He asks to imagine:
1. How would the great masters like Homer have said
the same things or how Plato or Demosthenes would
have invested it with sublimity?
2. If Homer and Demosthenes would have been alive,
how would they react against it (a new piece of
art)?
3. How will posterity take it?
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Comparative Aesthetics:
Occidental and Oriental
Source: Google Images (For academic illustration only.)
Mihir Bholey, PhD NID Ahmedabad INDIA
19

"A thought in its naked simplicity, even though unuttered,
is sometimes admirable by the sheer force of sublimity."
(On the Sublime: Chapter IX, Line No. 08)
यथा बीजाद भवेद वृक्षो वृक्षात पुष्पपं फलम यथा ।
तथा मूलम रसााः सवे ततो भावा व्यविथथतााः ॥
(38, षष्ठोध्यायाः, Chapter VI)
(Just as a tree grows from a seed and flowers and fruits from a tree, sentiment is the source of all
psychological states and likewise psychological states exist as the source of all sentiments.)
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The Idioms and Idiosyncrasies
• Any systematic comparative study of the western and
Indian aesthetics begins from Aristotle’s Poetics and
Bharata’s (200 BCE-200CE) Natyasastra
• Poetics is imminent to understand the western concept
of dramatic theory practice and aesthetics
• Obsession of European scholars with the Greek
perspective of aesthetics has rendered them oblivious
of other traditions
21

• Similarly , to appreciate Indian contemplation on
aesthetics Bharata and Natyasastra is still pivotal
• In other words, what Aristotle is to the Greek and
western tradition of aesthetics, Bharata is to the Indian
tradition
• The highest finding of Aristotle in Poetics is his
doctrine of catharsis while for Bharata the essence of
aesthetics lies in Rasa and Bhava
22

Natyasastra: the Indian Treaties on Aesthetics
• According to Alamkar Sastra artistic beauty cannot exist
unless the heart of a man of good taste is moved to delight
by the fascination of its expression
• Indian aesthetic tradition is rooted the doctrines of Bharata‟s
Natyasastra
• Besides its numerous offspring it is primarily celebrated for
its concept of Rasa (sentiments) and Bhavas (emotions)
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• Brahma expressed that the theme of the Natya or drama
should be acceptable to all and comprise of different
sentiments and values
• Pleasure for all should be the purpose it should aim to
achieve
• He ordained Natya in such a way as to ensure virtue, fame,
longevity and also advise (message) to the audience
• Natya was structured in such a way as to provide enough
scope for the display of all forms of art and artifacts
The Purpose of Natya
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• It‟s believed that Brahma created Natyaveda, the fifth Veda
borrowing elements from the four earlier Vedas
• Brahma borrowed Pathya – the text from Rigveda. Gita or
songs from Samveda. Abhinaya or acting from Yajurveda and
finally Rasa or sentiments from Atharvaveda
• He made Natyaveda accessible to people of all Varnas as
against the earlier four. It‟s called Sarvavarnikam
न वेदव्यवहारोयं संश्राव्याः शूद्रजितषु
तथमात् सृजापरं वेदं पञ्चमं सावववर्णिकम
(Natyasastra: Chapter-1, Sloka – 12)
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Natyasastra: the Historical Backdrop
• Believed to be composed somewhere between 2nd Century BC – 2nd
Century AD. Contains 6000 slokas (hymns) spread across 36-37
chapters
• The written manuscript located so far roughly belong to the period
between 12th – 18 century
• The commentaries on Natyasastra date back from 6th to 7th
century
• The earliest surviving commentary on Natyasastra is by
Abhinavagupta (10th century AD) followed by Saradatanya (12th-
13th century), Sarangadeva (13th century) and Kallinatha (16th
century)
26

Aesthetic Attributes of Natyasastra
• According to Alamkar Sastra artistic beauty cannot
exist unless the heart of a man of good taste is moved
to delight by the fascination of its expression
• Indian aesthetic and artistic expressions are rooted in
the fundamental doctrines of Bharata’s Natyasastra
which besides its numerous offsprings is celebrated for
its concept of Rasa (sentiments) and Bhavas (emotions)
27

• Natyasastra talks about 10 Rupakas or types of play. Rupa
or Rupak is the term used for a play because it‟s primarily a
visual representation
• The ten types of plays are – Nataka, Prakaran, Samavakara,
Ihamrga, Dima, Vyayoga, Anka, Prahasan, Bhana, and Vithi
• Natyasastra enumerates four types of Abhinaya or acting
(Chapter VIII) which are Angika – by body part motion,
Vachika – by speech, Aharya – by costumes and makeup and
finally Sattvika – by subtle movement of lips, eyebrows,
ears etc
28

• Abhinaya Darpan has an interesting sloka which means:
“Eyes should follow the hand, mind should follow the eye
when the mind is applied, there is Bhava or expression and
where there is expression, there is Rasa or sentiment.”
• Rasa (sentiments) and Bhavas (emotions) explore the
complex realm of human psychology and explain their fine
distinction and interdependence in the context of aesthetics
न भावहीनो अिथत रसो न भावो रथवर्णजताः ।
परथपरकृता िसििथतयोरिभनये भवेत ॥
(36, षष्ठोध्यायाः, Chapter VI)
(Rasa can‟t be deprived of Bhava nor can Bhava be deprived of Rasa as together they make drama complete.)
29

Rasa and Bhava: the Cognitive Correlation
• The whole histrionics revolves around nine Rasas (Navaras) and
eight Bhavas
• There are only four basic Rasas according to Natyasastra which
are Sringar, Vira, Raudra and Bibhatsa
• The rest four- Hasya, Karuna, Adbhuta and Bhayanak are
drawn from Sringara, Raudra, Vira and Bibhats respectively
• Natyasastra also identifies eight Bhavas which correspond to
the first eight Rasas
30

31

• Rasa is the cumulative result of Vibhava (stimulus) and Anubhava
(involuntary reaction) and Vyabhicharibhava (voluntary reaction)
• All the Bhavas have their corresponding Rasas
Bhavas Rasas
Rati (Love) Śṛngāram (Love)
Hasya (Mirth) Hasya (Comic)
Soka (Sorrow) Karunam (Pathetic/Kindly)
Krodha(Anger) Raudram (Furious)
Utsaha (Energy) Viram (Heroic)
Bhaya (Terror) Bhayanakam (Terrible)
Jugupsa (Disgust) Bibhatsam (Odious)
Vismaya (Astonishment) Adbhutam (Wonderful)
Santam (Tranquility)
32

Navrasa through Bhava. (Source: Dhananjayan on Indian Classical Dance, Delhi: B R Rhythms, pp 95)
33

Rasas and their Associations
• Natyasastra associates the navrasas with different colours.
Besides, each Rasa has a prime deity too:
Rasa Colour Prime Deity
Sringara Dark Blue Vishnu
Hasya White Pramata
Raudra Red Rudra
Karuna Pigeon Colour (Grey) Yama
Vira Yellowish Indra
Adbhuta Yellow Brahma
Bibhatsya Blue Shiva
Bhayanaka Dark Kala
34

• The most important question is what exactly is meant by Rasa? The
answer is “What is relished is Rasa”
• Explaining Rasa Natyasastra says as taste results from a
combination of various spices, vegetables and other articles and as
six tastes are produced by ingredients such as raw sugar, spices or
vegetables, similarly the durable psychological states
(sthayibhava) when come in contact with other psychological
states attain the quality of a sentiment. That‟s the notion of Rasa
भावािभनयसंयुक्ााः थथाियभावांथतथा बुधााः
आथवादयितत मनसा तथमान्नाट्यरसा: थमृतााः
(Natyasastra: Chapter VI, Sloka 33)
35

• Natyasastra says that just as connoisseurs of food while eating
food prepared from various spices and ingredients taste it, so do
the learned people in their heart (manas) taste the durable
psychological states viz. love, sorrow etc. The durable
psychological state in a drama is called Rasa or sentiment. (Chapter
VI : Sloka 32)
• Natyasastra raises a fundamental question – does Rasa emanate
from Bhava or vice-versa? Bharata confirms that though Rasa is
produced from Bhava but both are interdependent
न भावहीनो अिथत रसो न भावो रथवर्णजताः ।
परथपरकृता िसििथतयोरिभनये भवेत ॥
(Natyasastra: Chapter VI : Sloka 36)
36

• Bhavas on the other hand are the emotional state. They‟re
called so since they produce the idea of poems by use of
words, gestures and mental attitude
• Bhavas are called so because through words, gestures and
representation of sattva they infuse (bhavayanti) among the
audience the meaning of the drama
• Bhava is an instrument of action; an action which instills
Rasas
िवभावैराहृतो योऽथवथतवनुभावेन गम्यते |
वागंगसत्त्वािभनयै: स भाव इित संिित: ||
(Natyasastra: Chapter VII, Sloka 1)
37

• Bhava – a psychological state is determined by two other factors :
Vibhava (Determinants) and Anubhava (Consequents)
• Vibhava (Determinants) : Its synonyms are karana, nimitta and
hetu. Actions and feelings are evoked in connection with certain
surrounding objects and circumstances, called Vibhava- So Bhava
arises due to them.
• Anubhava (Consequents) : Different mental and emotional states
manifest themselves and become visible through universal
physiological reactions called Anubhava–The determinants lead to
consequents
• Both Vibhava and Anubhava depend on human nature and the
external world
38

Relevance of Rasa and Bhava
• Rasa-Bhava establishe a link between the performer and the
spectator. The ideal spectator is a sahrdaya, one who empathizes
with the author
• Success of spectacle is measured by the transference of intended
experience (Rasa) among the audience, so spectator becomes a
vital participant in the play
• Bharata refers to human soul as Bhava-Jagat (the world of
emotions). Actor is mere bearer, media and connector who
connects audience with the emotions of the character
39

• By transmitting emotions the actor gradually opens inner
Bhava-Jagat of the character, creates an emotional
atmosphere, which can be experienced and relished
• Spectator is introduced to the emotional atmosphere
through actors
• He transfers emotions of the character to the spectators.
Spectator may relish Rasas collectively or individually
• This way emotions are personified and translated from one
person to many
40

Aesthetics: the Esoteric and Empirical
यो अथो ह्रदयसंवादी तथय भावो रसोद्भवाः I
शरीरं व्यापते तेन शुष्कं किष्ममवाििना II
(Natyasastra)
41

• Aesthetics by nature is an esoteric experience but in
expression it has to be empirical since it is also about
cognition
• According to Coomarswamy (1877-1947) „it is not by
sensibilities but by his intellect that man can be called
an artist‟
• Referring to Plato he says that anything irrational can
not be called art
42

• Art is something which makes man function in a higher level of his
being, in his spirit, in his universal self or consciousness
• Art is the „summum bonum‟ (highest good) of human existence
• For Plato the purpose of art is „to attune our own distorted modes
of thought to cosmic harmonies‟, „by an assimilation of the knower
to the „to-be-known‟
• The (Rig) Vedic poets compare poetic hymn to a chariot (Ratha),
which transported him to his God; art for them is the fiery chariot
of contemplative thought
43

To Conclude
• Aesthetics deals with the notion of beauty and taste
• Shapes aesthetic judgment, attitude, understanding and emotion
• Aesthetics manifests in several genres : poetry, music, drama,
painting, design, architecture among others
• The manner of evoking pleasure has been discussed in various
treaties of aesthetics
• Appreciation and expression of aesthetics are determined both
psychologically and culturally
• The nature of aesthetics is not universal, it‟s particular; thus an
„emic category‟ in sociological terminology
44

• Aesthetic qualities of art, design, sculpture and architecture
reflects in the combination of the following: Unity – Proportion –
Scale – Balance – Symmetry and Rhythm
“The beauty of art presents itself to sense, to feeling, to perception, to
imagination; its sphere is not that of thought, and the apprehension of its activity
and its productions demand another organ than that of the scientific intelligence.
Moreover, what we enjoy in the beauty of art is precisely the freedom of its
productive and plastic energy.” (Hegel; Philosophy of Fine Art)
45

Bibliography
• Costelloe, Timothy, M. (Ed.) The Sublime: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2012.
• Dwivedi, Hazari Prasad. Dwivedi, Prithvinath. Natyasastra Ki Parampara aur Dasroopak. (Hindi) Delhi: Rajkamal
Prakashan, 2007.
• Greene , William Chase. Plato's View of Poetry. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 29 (1918), pp. 1-75,
Department of the Classics, Harvard University. http://www.jstor.org/stable/310558 (Accessed on 10-7-2013)
• Hegel, George W.F. The Introduction to Hegel‟s Philosophy of Fine Art. Bosanquet, Bernard (Translator),
Kessinger Publishing, 2011.
• Hussain, Mazhar. Wilkinson, Robert. (Editors). The Pursuit of Comparative Aesthetics. Hants, Ashgate Publishing
Ltd. 2006.
• Kumar, Pushpendra. Natyasastra of Bharatamuni. Delhi: New Bhartiya Book Corporation, 2010.
• Megh, Ramesh Kuntal. Athato Saudaryajigyasa. (Hindi), Delhi: Vani Prakashan.
http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Ssy_6oiGQj0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false (Accessed on 15-7-2013)
• Prasad, Gupteshwar. I A Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa. Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2007.
• Raghavan, V. The Aesthetics of Ananda Coomaraswamy. Bangalore, Indian Institute of World Culture, 1982
• Robert, Wilkinson (Ed.) New Essays in Comparative Aesthetics. UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007.
• Vatsyayan, Kapila. Aestheics of Indian Dance. http://www.indologica.com/volumes/vol23-24/vol23-
24_art12_VATSYAYAN.pdf (Accessed on 10-7-2013)
• Plato. Republic. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd. 1997.
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