2. INTRODUCTION
In 1834, Smith - first description of a rupture of the
rotator cuff tendon
Among most common causes of shoulder pain and
instability.
Disease severity range from inflammation and
edema to irreparable ruptures
Incidence 5-40% with increasing with advancing
age
Normal senescence process
3. ANATOMY
made up of 4 interrelated muscles arising from the
scapula and attaching to the tuberosities
supraspinatus
infraspinatus
teres minor
subscapularis
Long head of biceps – functional part
4. FUNCTION
Stabilisers of shoulder mainly anterior and posterior
cuff providing fixed fulcrum for concentric rotation
of the humeral head.
Neutralises shearing forces of deltoid in early
abduction.
Initiation of abduction.
Rotation of shoulder.
5. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
The extrinsic hypothesis :
repeated impingement of rotator cuff tendon against
different structures of the glenohumeral joint .
Three distinct impingement syndromes
Anterosuperior impingement syndrome
Posterosuperior impingement syndrome
Anterointernal impingement syndrome
6. ANTEROSUPERIOR IMPINGEMENT
SYNDROME
Impingement beneath the coracoacromial
arch
In 1972, Neer - term “impingement
syndrome”
Supraspinatus tendon insertion to the
greater tuberosity and the bicipital groove
must pass beneath the arch with forward
flexion of the shoulder, especially if
internally rotated, causing an impingement
7. Different shapes of acromia (Biglianni et al) -anterior
slope
Type 1 - Flat ( 3 % of cuff tears)
Type 2 - Curved (24 % of cuff tears)
Type 3 - Hooked ( 73 % of cuff tears)
8. Pt with cuff tear are more likely to have
curved or hooked acromion (Toivonen DA et
al 1995,Tuite et al1995)
Flatow et al (1994)-stereophotogrammetry-
type 3 acromia had increased contact
Ozaki's study on cadavers showed that the
undersurface of the acromion was normal
when the incomplete tear was on the
articular side
9. Neer‘s stages:
Stage 1-
edema and hemorrhage
excessive overhead use
patients < 25 years.
Stage 2-
fibrosis and tendinitis
following repeated episodes of mechanical inflammation
patients - 25-40 years.
Stage 3-
bone spurs
incomplete and complete tears of the rotator cuff and long head
of the biceps tendon
patients > 40 years.
10. POSTEROSUPERIOR IMPINGEMENT
SYNDROME
Impingement between the articular side of the
supraspinatus tendon and the posterosuperior edge
of the glenoid cavity
Walch in 1991
May explain some of the articular side tears,
especially in overhead sport athletes
11. POSTEROSUPERIOR IMPINGEMENT
SYNDROME(CONTD)
With the shoulder held at 120°
of abduction, retropulsion, and
in extreme external rotation
(similar to the late cocking
phase in throwers), the labrum
moves away from the glenoid
and the glenoid rim comes in
contact with the deep surface
of the tendon, producing
repeated microtrauma and
leading to partial tears
12. ANTEROINTERNAL IMPINGEMENT
SYNDROME
Gerber (1985) - impingement of the cuff in
the coracohumeral interval
When the shoulder is held in flexion and
internal rotation, the coracohumeral
distance is reduced from 8.6 mm when the
arm is at the side to 6.7 mm
Subcoracoid impingement can be idiopathic
(eg, large coracoid tip), iatrogenic or
following a fracture (eg, humeral head or
neck fracture)
13. THE INTRINSIC HYPOTHESIS
Progressive age-related degeneration of the tendon
Von Meyer -first to introduce the concept that
degeneration of the tendon plays a major role in the
production of cuff lesions
Many histologic studies show the age-related
degeneration of the cuff tendon
14. THE INTRINSIC HYPOTHESIS (CONT)
“The critical zone” (Codman) -articular surface of
the tendon, near its insertion on the greater
tuberosity
? hypovascularity in critical zone
Recent studies using laser doppler (Swiontkowski &
associates) - normal flow in this zone of normal
tendon
Rathbun et al -relative avascularity of the cuff is
position-dependent and observed a poor filling only
when the shoulder is in adduction
Normal degenerative process associated
with aging, then, is the main factor to explain the
lesions of the articular side of the cuff
15. CLINICAL PRESENTATION
Stiffness-more common with partial tears.
Stiffness can be demonstrated as limitations of
Internal rotation with arm in abduction
Reach up the back
Cross-body adduction
Flexion
External rotation
16. CLINICAL PRESENTATION (CONTD)
Pain or weakness
Located anterolaterally and superior
Aggravated by use of arm in overhead position or
flexion
Weakness
Associated crepitus, clicking, clunking or grinding
sensation
18. NEERS’ TEST
Most diagnostic test
LA 10ml lignocaine into subacromial bursa
>50% relief – rotator cuff tendinitis or partial tear of
bursal surface
Pain relief but weakness persists – full thickness tears
No relief - incorrect diagnosis or wrong injection
19. TOPOGRAPHIC TESTS
supraspinatus tendon
The Jobe test
Shoulder is placed at 90° of abduction and 30° of flexion.
Shoulder elevation is resisted.
Test is positive if pain is noted.
21. The Full Can test
Shoulder is placed at 90° of flexion and 45° of external
humeral rotation (thumb pointing upward, like someone
holding a full can, right-side-up).
Shoulder elevation is resisted.
Test is positive if it produces pain.
22. THE INFRASPINATUS TENDON
The Infraspinatus Isolation test
The shoulder is positioned at 0° of
elevation (elbows against the waist
flexed at 90°) and 45° of internal
rotation.
Shoulder external rotation is
resisted.
The test is positive if it produces
pain.
EMG shows that this is the optimal
infraspinatus isolation test
23. The Patte test
The shoulder is placed at 90° of abduction, neutral
rotation, and in the plane of the scapula.
The examiner holds the elbow of the patient and the
external rotation is resisted.
The test is positive if it produces pain.
24. THE SUBSCAPULAR TENDON
The Gerber lift-off test
The shoulder is placed passively in internal rotation and
slight extension by placing the hand 5-10 cm from the
back with the palm facing outward and the elbow flexed
at 90°.
The test is positive when the patient cannot hold this
position, with the back of the hand hitting the patient's
back.
25. The Gerber push with
force test
The shoulder is placed
in the same position as
the lift-off test; however,
the patient has to keep
his hand away from the
back and resists a push
in the palm of the hand.
27. X-RAY
AP for AHI (Normal >7 mms)
<5mms - poor prognosis.
Y-lateral for shape of acromion
Axillary for os acromiale
AP of ACJ for osteophytes
AP in Abd for rotator cuff dysfunction
28. RADIOGRAPHIC FEATURES
subchondral sclerosis of humeral head
flattening of the greater tuberosity
sclerosis of the acromion-sourcil sign
calcifications located in the presumed area of
rotator cuff tendon
acromion spurs
acromion type 2 and 3.
31. Bony spur on the inferior surface of the acromion
32. ARTHROGRAM
Good for diagnosis of complete rotator cuff tear.
Cost effective.
Invasive
Does not give information about size of tear.
33. presence of contrast medium in
the subdeltoid-subacromial
bursa signs the presence of a
complete rotator cuff tear.
channel between the articular
capsule and the subacromial-
subdeltoid bursa in a complete
rotator cuff tear.
34. ULTRASOUND
Cheap and quick to perform.
Good definition of rotator cuff.
Allows dynamic examination.
Operator dependant.
Findings:
Nonvisualization of cuff
Localized absence
Discontinuity
Focal abnormal echogenicity
35. MRI
Best diagnostic aid.
Defines site of cuff damage.
Demonstrates fatty changes in muscle
-poor quality cuff.
Exact size, shape and location of tear
Non-invasive
37. CONSERVATIVE MANAGEMENT
McLaughlin in 1962 advanced reasons to avoid
early repair
25 % of cadavers had torn cuff -most of them were
asymptomatic
50 % of patients would recover comfortably
Results of early and late repair are similar
Repair did not always permit anatomic restoration
Early diagnosis is difficult
38. Review of literature indicates that success
rate of nonoperative treatment ranges from
33% to 92%
Bartolozzi et al (Clin orthop, 1994) reported
66-75% good or excellent results (mean
follow up 20 months). Unfavorable
prognostic factors were
Tear> 1 cm2
Symptoms > 1yr
Significant functional impairment
39. Hawkins & Dunlop (1995) reported >50%
satisfactory result at avg follow up of 4 years
Bokor et al (1993) reported 74% satisfactory
result over period of 7.6 yrs in 53 pts
(average age 62 yrs). 86 % of those present
within 3 months responded favorably while
only 56% of those presented after 6 mnt
were satisfactory
Itoi and Tabata (1992) reported 82%
satisfactory result in 62 shoulders followed
over 3.4 yrs.
40. ORTHOTHERAPY
Term used by Michael Wirth (OCNA 1997)
Interactive exchange between patient and
orthopedic surgeon directed at creating exercise
regimen that gradually improves motion and
strength in shoulder girdle.
Three phases:
Phase 1- restore full, painless range of motion. Codman
pendulum exercise followed by passive movements in all
direction
Phase 2- designed to strengthened remaining muscles of
rotator cuff, deltoid & scapular muscles
Phase 3- gradual reinstitution of normal activities including
work, hobby and sport.
41. SUBACROMIAL CORTICOSTEROID
INJECTIONS
Combination of local
anaesthetic and steroid (5-
10mls)
Course: - maximum of 2 to 3
injections
Method: - sitting with arm
hanging by side
- needle inserted just
under acromion
from anterolateral,
lateral, or posterolateral
aspect
- should have easy
unrestricted flow of fluid
42. SUBACROMIAL CORTICOSTEROID
INJECTIONS
Benefits: - short-term benefit in reducing pain and
increasing ROM
Risks:
- decreased tendon strength and risk of rupture
if into tendon
- subcutaneous atrophy
- effects on articular cartilage
- may have detrimental effects on results of
subsequent repair
43. OPERATIVE TREATMENT
Patient selection:
Samilson & Binder :
Patient physiologically younger than 60 yrs
Clinically or arthrographically demonstrable full
thickness cuff tear.
Failure to improve on nonoperative management
for minimum of 6 weeks
Need to use shoulder in overhead elevation
Full passive range of motion
Ability & willingness to cooperate
44. POOR PROGNOSTIC FACTORS
Old age group
Long history
No history of trauma
Smoker
Multiple steroid injection
Diffuse osteopenia
45. Rotator cuff tear are classified on basis of size by
Gartsman:
Small < 1 cm
Medium-1 to 3 cm
Large-3 to 5 cm
Massive > 5 cm
46. PROCEDURES
Repair of tear
open or arthroscopic
Tendon to tendon or tendon to bone
Arthroscopic debridement and acromioplasty with mini-
open repair
47. Neer described four major objectives
Closure of cuff defect
Elimination of impingement lesions of coracoacromial
arch
Preservation of origin of deltoid
Rehabilitation to prevent postop stiffness
48. TECHNIQUE OF OPEN REPAIR
Approach- 5 to 7 cm incision extending from lateral
aspect of ant third of acromion to lateral tip of
coracoid
54. ADVANTAGES OF OPEN REPAIR
Easy to do
No special equipment required
Allows direct visualization of cuff repair and
acromioplasty
Good long term follow-up
55. DISADVANTAGES
Deltoid detachment required
False positive studies (arthrogram 2%, MRI 10%)
will lead to unnecessary open exploration
Unrepairable tear will be opened.
Significant intraarticular pathology will be missed
56. ARTHROSCOPIC REPAIR OF ROTATOR CUFF
Advantages :
Lesser morbidity
Ability to identify and treat other pathology
Truly outpatient
Allows to address small undetected tears
Patient acceptance
57. Disadvantages :
Technically difficult
Implant cost-needs anchor
Increased OR time
High failure rate during learning curve
62. ARTHROSCOPIC ASSISTED MINI
OPEN REPAIR
Lateral portal is
expanded
Useful for small &
moderate shape tears
Results comparable to
open repair
63. ARTHROSCOPIC ASSISTED MINI
OPEN REPAIR
Combined advantage
easy to do with modest arthroscopic skills
allows for arthroscopic correction of intraarticular
pathology
well established improvement in perioperative
morbidity
in two large studies with no increase in
complication or compromise in outcome
cost effective
easy to “bail out” to full open procedure if desired
avoid opening patients with false positive studies
avoid opening patients with unrepairable defects
64. POST OPERATIVE PLAN
Depends on
1. Size of tear
2. Type of repair
3. Degree of retraction
4. Intraoperative motion limits
5. Age of patient
65. POST OPERATIVE PLAN (CONTD)
Arthroscopic
Immd active and passive ROM
Avoid active abduction >60 degree for 3-4 wks
Then electrical stimulation, resisting exercises
for 3-4 mths
High demand activities within 4-6 mths
Open
Proceed slowly (deltoid detached)
Avoid active flexion or abduction for 4 wks
Requires 1-2 additional months
66. POST OPERATIVE PLAN (CONTD)
Phase 1 - protective, protecting repair but
regaining movement and prevention of muscle
weakening
Phase 2 - strengthening, when healing secure,
and 2/3 normal range of movement achieved
Phase 3 - return to work and sport, entry
requirements, full ROM, no pain or tenderness.
67. PARTIAL THICKNESS TEAR
Three subtypes (Codman)
Bursal-side
Articular surface tears
Intratendinous
Surgical options:
Debridement alone
Debridement with arthroscopic subacromial
decompression
Open repair with acromioplasty
Arthroscopic repair
Arthroscopic subacromial decompression with
mini open repair
68. PARTIAL THICKNESS TEAR (CONTD)
Ellman classification (depth of tear):
Type 1 0-3 mm
Type 2 3-6 mm
Type 3 >6 mm
69. ARTHROSCOPIC DEBRIDEMENT &
ACROMIOPLASTY VERSUS REPAIR
Gartsman (1995)
Size & depth of tear (more or less than 50 %)
Patient activity level
Bone structure
Currently
Lesions <50% thickness of tendon –
debridement
those >50% - excision and repair
Bursal lesions with type 2 or 3 acromions -
decompression
73. DEBRIDEMENT
Indication
>60 years
good external rotation
good flexion
good relief with subacromial LA injection
74. DEBRIDEMENT
Excise all frayed margin and tissue.
Do not excise coraco-acromial ligament.
antero- superior translation of humeral head.
Minimal debridement of acromion.
75. TENDON TRANSPOSITION
Transfer part of subscapularis or infraspinatus
superiorly.
? Disrupts coupling force of subscapularis and
infraspinatus.
76. PARTIAL REPAIR OF MASSIVE
ROTATOR CUFF TEAR
Burkhart et al
“Functional rotator cuff tear”
Force couples be intact
Stable fulcrum kinematic
Edge stability
Intact “suspension bridge”
77. PARTIAL REPAIR OF MASSIVE
ROTATOR CUFF TEAR (CONTD)
Balanced force couple- inferior half of
infraspinatous posteriorly & subscapularis anteriorly
78. PARTIAL REPAIR OF MASSIVE
ROTATOR CUFF TEAR (CONTD)
Burkhart et al- partial rotator cuff repair in
irreperable cuff- 2 excellent, 6 good, 5 fair & 1 poor
result
Preserves normal mechanics as compared to
tendon transfer
79. MUSCLE TRANSFERS
Main indication- symptomatic rotator cuff
defect that has low probability of repair
Two parameters are used
Static subluxation of humeral head
Degree of degeneration and atrophy of rotator
cuff muscles
Transfers for substitution of individual
muscle
Subscapularis -Trapezius (acromial portion),
pectoralis major, pectoralis minor
Supraspinatus – Trapezius (acromial portion),
Deltoid
Infraspinatus – Latissimus dorsi, Teres major
80. LATISSIMUS DORSI TRANSFER
Described by Gerber in 1992
Indication
Irreparable rotator cuff tear involving
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Functioning subscapularis and deltoid.
81. REVIEW OF 16 CASES OVER 33
MONTHS
Average gain
flexion 52 degrees
abduction 50 degrees
external rotation 13 degrees
Overall excellent 8, good 5, fair 2, poor 2.
Patients with subscapularis tear did poorly.
82. TERES MAJOR TRANSFER
Described by Celli in 1998
Indication
Isolated infraspinatus tear
Functional supraspinatus
Reported 6 cases with good results
83. COMPLICATIONS OF ROTATOR CUFF REPAIR
Retear or failure of repair
Infection
Adhesions
Fracture of acromion
Denervation of deltoid
Injury to suprascapular nerve
Greater tuberosity fracture
Stiffness – frozen shoulder
Reflex sympathetic dystrophy
84. CUFF TEAR ARTHROPATHY
End stage rotator cuff disease (4%)
Age 70-80 yrs
Severe shoulder pain
Active elevation 40-60 degrees
Severe wasting of supraspinatus and infraspinatus
Effusion anteriorly
Superior subluxation of humerus
85. CUFF TEAR ARTHROPATHY
Radiograph:
Superior translation of
head of humerus
Loss of articular cartilage
Direct articulation of head
with coracoacromial arch
“femoralisation” of
proximal humerus
“acetabularization” of
upper glenoid
86. TREATMENT
Intractable pain unresponsive to conservative
treatment is the strongest indication for surgery
Options :
Shoulder arthrodesis
Hemi replacement arthroplasty
Total shoulder replacement
88. CONCLUSION
Diagnosis is usually by good history and
examination
Non operative management remains the standard
initial care
Surgery in selective active individuals
Arthroscopy - early mobilization and decreased
morbidity
Treatment according to patients functional needs
89. REFERENCES
The Orthopedic Clinics Of North America, Volume
28, April 1997
The Orthopedic Clinics Of North America, Volume
27, January 1997
The Shoulder, 2nd Edition, Rockwood and Matson-
WB Saunders
Pubmed online