1. Vocabulary I

2. Learning Objectives:
Developing vocabulary acquisition skills and strategies
Using inference and deduction to explore layers of
meaning of a word
Making relevant notes when researching different
sources, comparing and contrasting information.
Using vocabulary precisely and imaginatively to clarify
and extend meaning
Using a variety of resources to study use and usage of
a word
 Improving vocabulary for precision and impact

3. Where to start?

4. The spread of English according to
Kachru (1985)
Norm- providing
Norm- developing
Norm- dependent

5. Vocabulary
• Core language
• Variety
• Dialect
• Jargon
• Code
• Vernacular
• Slang
• Pidgin
• Lingo
• Patois

6. Vocabulary
• Core language
– Language base which may vary according to
cultural and geographical differences but
comprehensible to speakers from different
regions or countries

7. Vocabulary
• Variety
– A language set that is distinguished from other
sets of the same language by features of
phonology, grammar and vocabulary and by its
use by a group of speakers who are usually set off
from others geographically.

8. Vocabulary
• Dialect
– A different form, condition or phase of a language

9. Vocabulary
• Jargon
– Vocabulary peculiar to a particular trade,
profession or group

10. Vocabulary
• Code
– A system used for brevity or secrecy of
communication, in which arbitrarily chosen words,
letters, or symbols are assigned definite meanings

11. Vocabulary
• Vernacular
– Native or indigenous as opposed to literary or
learned language

12. Vocabulary
• Slang
– Very informal usage in vocabulary and idiom that
is characteristically more metaphorical, playful,
elliptical, vivid, and ephemeral than ordinary
language

13. Vocabulary
• Pidgin
– An auxiliary language that has come into existence
through the attempts by speakers of two different
languages to communicate and that is primarily a
simplified form of one of the languages, with a
reduced vocabulary and grammatical structure
and considerable variation in pronunciation

14. Vocabulary
• Lingo
– The language and speech of a particular group,
field or individual

15. Vocabulary
• Patois
– A regional form of a language, particularly French,
differing from the standard, literary forms of the
language

16. Watch the next video
• Which person seems to have the most
difficulty communicating?

17. (Teaching) Vocabulary (Igbaria)
• "If language structures make up the skeleton,
then the vocabulary provides the vital organs
and the flesh". Jeremy Harmer

18. (Teaching) Vocabulary (Igbaria)
• Selection, knowledge and techniques
• What to teach/learn? What criteria should be
used?
• High frequency words first – click here to see
the video (Oxford 3000)
• Organizing words (Brazil gay rights progress
highlights deep divisions from the BBC)

22. Did you know that …
• Nice is one of the top fifteen words in
conversation, but rare in written academic
English?
• The most common word in English is “I”?
• The 5 most common verbs are know, think,
get, go and mean?
• The most common nouns are people, time
and things?

23. Did you know that …
• The most common adjective is good?
• Yeah is more frequent than yes?
• Little is more frequent than small?
• Things, years, kids and children are more
frequent than their singular forms?
• Something is more frequent than anything,
everything, and nothing?

24. (Teaching) Vocabulary (Igbaria)
• The efficiency of word lists (glossaries for
translators)
• Word meaning/use/formation/grammar
• How autonomous is the autonomous learner?
• The Celce-Murcia approach: Conveying
meaning, Checking understanding, and
Consolidation

25. (Teaching) Vocabulary (Igbaria)
• Delexicalized verbs: make, do, get, have, and
take.
• In addition to an original meaning, they take
meaning from their collocates

26. (Teaching) Vocabulary (Igbaria)
• The grammar of vocabulary
• The vocabulary of grammar and the grammar
of speech

27. (Teaching) Vocabulary (Igbaria)
• Would you mind x Do you mind
– (Requests) Do you mind/Would you mind +
gerund e.g. Do you mind/Would you mind helping
me for a second?
– (Asking for permission) Do you mind/Would you
mind + if e.g. Do you mind/Would you mind +if I
leave/left early today?

28. Language Learning X Learning Acquisition

29. Note Taking
• ACQUISITION OF A LANGUAGE
• Learning a Target Language
‘PICK UP A
LANGUAGE’
‘INCIDENTAL
LEARNING’
Studying it
Intended
learning

30. Vocabulary
• Active x Passive; Productive x Receptive
• Indirect x Direct Acquisition
• Gramaticalized lexis or Lexicalized grammar
(Lewis, 1993)

31. Boundaries between conceptual
meaning
• Multiple meaning
• Homonymy
• Homophyny
• Synonymy
• Affective meaning
• Style, register, dialect
• L1 - L2 (false cognates)
• Chunks of language
• Grammar of vocabulary
• Pronunciation

32. ‘Learning involves the search for patterns,
regularity and predictability’
Bruner 1960
• Global concept of knowing a lexical item
• Effective written storage systems
• Seven is the magic number
• Memory strategies: mental linkages, images
and sounds, reviewing, physical response

33. Vocabulary and Multiple Intelligences
• Intelligences in the teacher and in the
translator:
– Existential, Intra-personal, Visual-Spatial,
Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Verbal/Linguistic,
Logical/Mathematical, Musical, Naturalist
– “Intelligence is the wife, imagination the
mistress, and memory the servant”. Victor Hugo

34. Language learning autonomy
• Guided discovery
• Contextual guesswork
• Dictionary use
• Knowledge of word formation (morphology)
• How new words are formed

35. Motivation in language learning
• Intrinsic x Extrinsic
• Affective x Logical

36. The Lexical Approach (Lewis, 1993)
• Learning in chunks X Learning in Context
• Basis of communication
• Chunks: collocations, fixed and semi-fixed
expressions, and idioms
• Having good vocabulary X Being
collocationally competent

37. The Lexical Approach (Lewis, 1993)
• Identifying, organizing and recording chunks
• Being able to use a word involves mastering
its collocation range and restrictions on that
range

38. Collocation range
• Why is it we can stay awake and not keep
awake? Why do we stay alive and not keep
alive?
• Why is it possible to say keep afloat and stay
afloat?

39. Questions in Portuguese:
Por que o leite azeda, a carne estraga e o
ovo apodrece?
Por que se pode dirigir uma empresa,
prestar um concurso e marcar uma
consulta?
Por que se guarda mágoas, faz donativos e
cria expectativas?

40. COLLOCATION
Noun: the act or result of placing or
arranging together ; specifically : a noticeable
arrangement or conjoining of linguistic
elements (as words)
Merriam- Webster Online Dictionary
▸ noun: a grouping of words in a sentence
▸ noun: the act of positioning close together (or side
by side)
Onelook Dictionary

41. Collocation types
• Noun + noun phrase: term of endearment
• Adjective + noun: sole survivor
• Verb + noun: bear responsibility
• Noun + verb: resentment breeds
• Adverb + adjective: desperately needed
• Verb + preposition: grieve for
• Adjective + preposition: obsessed with
• Noun + preposition: demand for

42. Give a more suitable word for the one in
bold.
• There has been a big increase in petrol prices.
• The scandal has hurt his professional reputation.
• I’m afraid this is only a short visit, I can only stay
a couple of hours.
• The development could have a bad effect on the
local wildlife.
• The government has presented its plans for
education reforms.
• The consultants came up with some good
suggestions for improving efficiency.

43. • There has been a
dramatic/sharp/significant/
substantial increase in oil prices.

44. • The scandal has
damaged/ruined/destroyed/tarnished his
professional reputation

45. • I’m afraid this is only a brief/flying
visit, I can only stay a couple of hours.

46. • The development could have a(n)
adverse/devastating/harmful effect
on the local wildlife.

47. • The government has
announced/outlined/unveiled its
plans for education reforms.

48. • The consultants came up with some
constructive/helpful/sensible
suggestions for improving efficiency.

49. • In the following slides one of the nouns
does not collocate with the adjective.

50. • A strong woman/exam/cheese/cigarette

51. • (A) heavy smoker/rain/metal/problem

52. • (A) fair hair/decision/beer/result

53. • A rich company/dessert/car/text file

54. • A tough decision/steak/drink/woman

55. Some words tend to have very few
collocates

56. Mitigating circumstances

57. Auburn hair

58. Inclement weather

59. Collocations vary in frequency

60. How many words can collocate
with…
• Accent
• Smile
• Location
• Meeting
• Agreement
• Effort
• Living
• Chance
• Occasion
• Thoughts

61. How do we find collocations?

63. The key is keeping your eye out for
them

64. Which is not always an easy task

65. • Anyone in their right mind would jump at the
chance of landing a job like that.

66. • Tanya seems to have a knack for languages,
so it’s no surprise she’s decided to take up
Mandarin Chinese.

67. • She has quite an odd accent, which, like
everything else about her, is hard to pin
down.

68. • Management hopes staff will rise to the
occasion and meet the new sales targets.

69. Are they all the same?
• Fixed collocation
–Fixed expression
• Idiomatic expression
–Idiom

70. Idioms

71. Before you watch the next video,
Have a go at identifying common
English idioms and slang based on
the word cloud on the next slide

73. What does the video tell us about
• The type of language used by native speakers?
• The “shelf life” of idiomatic expressions and
slang?
• For the list of expressions used in the video,
click here.

74. Idioms
* Expressions or phrases peculiar to a
given community of speakers with the
same cultural background and previous
knowledge of the world.

75. Idioms differ from fixed expressions in
that:
1. The former act on a culturally and
figuratively semantic plane
2. The latter is limited to a more literal
or concrete prism.

76. I haven't got the foggiest.
I have no idea.
Just a second.
Hold your horses.

77. Idioms can be formed by:
* Noun or prepositional phrases
by all means; green with envy
* Clauses or periods
You can't have your cake and eat it.

78. Idioms are usually organized/
arranged …

79. * In word groups related to specific areas
Work/Employment
- slug your guts out
- get the sack
- cook the books
Health/State of mind
- green about the gills
- in the pink
- feel like a million dollars

80. * By parts of speech
Prepositions
- in/out of fashion
- at long last
- on the fly
Verbs
- get one's own back
- lose heart
- take the cake

81. * By communicative function
- On top of that
- Can we leave it at that?
- At the end of the day

82. What do the following idioms on the
next slides have in common
semantically?

83. Have a lot on your plate
Have fingers in many pies
Wear many hats

84. Have a cow
Have monkeys
Have a fit

85. Are these expressions usually
translatable?

86. Have you ever heard of these?
• If you make a lot of money quickly, you make
money hand over ……………..
• If you can go wherever and whenever you want,
the world is your ………………….
• If you spend your life savings to throw a big party
or celebration, you push the ……………...
• If someone is so thin, he/she is nothing more
than skin and ……………..
• If you face a problem head-on, you take the bull
by the …………………..

87. • If you make a lot of money quickly, you make
money hand over fist.
• If you can go wherever and whenever you want,
the world is your oyster/playground.
• If you spend your life savings to throw a big party
or celebration, you push the boat (out).
• If someone is so thin, he/she is nothing more
than skin and bones.
• If you face a problem head-on, you take the bull
by the horns.

88. And these?
• If someone makes a mess of something, he/she
makes a pig’s ………….. of it.
• If you refuse to do something, you won’t do it for
all the ……………….. in China.
• If you look very angrily at someone without
speaking, you look …………………… at them.
• If something is quite easy to understand, it’s as
plain as …………………
• If you change the rules to make things more
difficult for a person, you move the
………………………..

89. • If someone makes a mess of something, he/she
makes a pig’s ear of it.
• If you refuse to do something, you won’t do it for
all the tea in China.
• If you look very angrily at someone without
speaking, you look daggers at them.
• If something is quite easy to understand, it’s as
plain as pie.
• If you change the rules to make things more
difficult for a person, you move the goalposts.

90. Idioms are sometimes also
considered metaphorical language

91. Here are some using parts of the
body

92. • The scientists of the IPCC highlighted the
need to FACE up to the facts and take
immediate action. (accept reality)

93. • Never afraid to SHOULDER the blame in
defeat, Guardiola is also quick to withdraw
from the media glare in victory, preferring
instead to let his players take the acclaim.
(take responsibility)

94. • Finally, the question on all our minds is who
should FOOT the bill? (pay the price)

95. • Mr. de Ruiter, who will be travelling to South
Africa this weekend, will HEAD a
team of experts in the areas of: the electoral
process; law; the media; conflict resolution;
security, and logistics. (coordinate)

96. • In recent years, Port Wine producers have
been finding new and ingenious ways to sell
their wines, keeping the R&D departments on
their TOES (not allow a person to rest)

97. • I then learned that I had to construct my
characters on paper, I had been so observant
for such a long time, and that I
actually had a good EYE for filmmaking. (have
a natural talent for)

98. • Increasing urbanization must go HAND in
HAND with improving public transport. (go
together with or come as a result of)

99. • In short, the film is like an invitation to
THUMB a ride through the mind of a youthful
Che Guevara and of his friend Alberto
Granado, riding pillion on one same
motorcycle for eight months, having left
Buenos Aires in 1952, and on through Chile,
Peru and Venezuela. (travel in someone’s
vehicle for free)

100. • Otherwise we have a permanent problem
here, a permanent pain in the
BEHIND* for the whole of Europe. (a
nuisance)

101. • Finally, don't forget to be polite, or you
may 'put your FOOT in it' and say something
embarrassing. (make an untimely comment)

102. • Given the very serious financial crisis in Turkey
since the beginning of the year, the
government has had to play by EAR
(improvise/make do)

103. • Whatever brave FACE we put on it, the
outcome of the Barcelona Summit was indeed
a disappointment. (have a positive outlook in
spite of the facts that prove otherwise)

104. • Whatever their plans for the future, they
always have the answer on the tip
of their TONGUE: "I want to go to university
and study philosophy. (be in one’s immediate
memory)

105. • According to Ponciano (1995) Foulkes himself,
following his reading at the London
Psychoanalytic Society, of the article "On
Introjection" was given the cold
SHOULDER by Klein's friends, Jones e
Rickman, and little by little distanced himself
from their theoretical positions. (ignore
someone)

106. • It was a scandal, and a scandal that no
one has put their FINGER on. (to identify
something)

108. Some collocations change in
meaning with the switch of a key
word

109. • Jill walked into a well-paid job in the City.
• Jill got a well-paid job in the City.

110. • I think you jumped to the wrong conclusion.
• I think you came to the wrong conclusion.

111. • His works are compiled in a series of heavy
tomes.
• His works are compiled in a series of weighty
tomes.

112. Then there are exceptions to the
rule
• Fat chance we've got of winning the
sweepstakes.
• We've got a slim chance of winning the
sweepstakes.

113. What do these sentences have in
common?
• ATHLETE RUNS INTO TROUBLE
• DIET PILLS HAVE FAT CHANCE OF SUCCESS
• NEW DIRECTOR KEEPS ROYAL BALLET ON ITS
TOES
• SHOEWORLD CO. TO FOOT THE BILL
• NEW LAW MAKES RABBIT OWNERS HOPPING
MAD

114. The use of puns in headlines
Varies in sarcasm and malice in
accordance with the paper’s
reputation and target readership

116. Some of the key features of
newspaper English
Here are some examples

117. Taking on new meaning
• 'Nearly two weeks ago, an estimated 3,000
people assembled at Battery Park with the
intention of occupying Wall Street. They were
an eclectic group … But nearly everyone was
angry at what they saw as a culture of out-of-
control greed.
– ’ TIME 29TH SEPTEMBER 2011

118. Taking on new meaning
• 'National View: Why we should support
the occupation of Wall Street … October 2011
will mark a time in U.S. history when the
people of the United States, facing great
economic peril, rose up to demand economic
justice
– SOUTHCOAST TODAY 27TH OCTOBER 2011

119. Blending words
• 'Glu has been quicker to transition its business
model from pay-to-play to a so-called
'freemium' business model – where games are
downloaded free, but can be monetized via
advertising or charging gamers for additional
features.'
– REUTERS 6TH JUNE 2011

120. Brands becoming words
• Sheffield United skipper Nick Montgomery is
ready to give the full monty after six weeks
out due to injury. (full monty = all effort, the
whole thing or set)
• 'Our Edinburgh show was very marmite with
critics – either four/five stars, or – a couple of
times – one star!‘ (marmite = unsuccessful)
THE NEW CURRENT 13TH MARCH 2011

121. More examples of brands
• The British use it to clean their carpets.
• A cheap writing instrument
• It’s synonymous with to check or do research
• This develops almost instantly after photo is
taken
• Used to tie or mend a seal that was torn
• A moving staircase

122. More examples of brands
• Hoover
• Biro
• Google
• Polaroid
• Sellotape
• Escalator

123. Acronyms as words
• WYSIWYG – what you see is what you get
• PHAT – pretty hot and tasty
• DILLIGAF – does it look like I give a ****?
• NAFF – not available for fun
– I’m sick and tired of this crap. Stop naffing about
and come clean with us!

124. Makes no sense
• Egg in eggplant?
• Ham in hamburger?
• Apple in pineapple?
• English muffins from England?
• French fries from France?
• Panama hats from Panama
• Meat in sweetmeat?
• Bread in sweetbread?

125. Makes no sense
• Quick in quicksand?
• Circles in boxing rings?
• Guinea pigs from Guinea?
• Fing as a verb?
• Groce as a verb?
• Ham as a verb?
• Booth – beeth?
• Moose – meese?
• House – hice?

126. Makes no sense
Can you make an amend?
Is there such a thing as an odd and end?
Why isn’t the past of preach praught?
Do humanitarians eat humans? What do
authoritarians eat?
Can we recite at a recital?
Can we play at a play?

127. Makes no sense
Do we ship something by ship?
Do we send cargo by car?
Do our noses smell?
Do feet run?
Is a fat chance the same as a slim chance?
Can a wise man also be a wise guy?

128. Language note
Smelly feet – flat foot- ingrown nail- athlete’s
feet- bunion
Running/runny nose- flu – cold- congested-
sick- ill

129. Makes no sense
Can burn up be the same as burn down?
Can you fill someone in and fill someone out?
What can go off and go on?
Can you see the lights when they are out? What
about the stars

130. English is a crazy language
• http://www.etni.org.il/farside/crazyenglish.ht
m
• http://english-
zone.com/language/english.html

131. Memory as a conveyor belt

132. Learning a word
Receptive knowledge - decoding
Conceptual knowledge- applying
Phonological knowledge- pronouncing
Grammatical knowledge- using
Connotational Knowledge- deducing
Metalinguistic Knowledge – interpreting and
inferring
Memory- RETRIEVING
Cameron, L. 2001

133. Recap
Associating it with picture
Learning other words related to original search
Learning something interesting about the word
Experiencing the word in different contexts
Repetition
Using the words
Maximizing learning opportunities

134. Word association
1- Jeopardy, objection, overruled, court, parole,
death sentence, jailhouse, appeal.
Crime and Punishment

135. Word association
1- flood, flash flood, torrent, downpour, in land
tsunami, cats and dogs, flood appeal.
Rain

136. Contextual guesswork
DAY AT WORK
In the morning I _______ a meeting between
management and _____ representatives. The
discussion was very ________, covering topics
like working hours, days off, retirement age, etc.
Both sides were interested in an agreement and
ready to _______. The secretary
______everything in the notes. ________, they
decided to set a new meeting to sign the final
draft of the agreement.

137. Key
DAY AT WORK
In the morning I attended a meeting between
management and union representatives. The
discussion was very comprehensive, covering
topics like working hours, days off, retirement
age, etc. Both sides were interested in an
agreement and ready to compromise. The
secretary recorded everything in the notes.
Eventually, they decided to set a new meeting to
sign the final draft of the agreement.

138. Contextual guesswork
Back at the ______, a colleague of mine asked
me if I had _______ that the proposed
agreement would be partially against the
company ________ not to accept workers that
have already ________. I _______ to be really
busy and late for an _______, and left for the
_______. Actually, I didn't want to discuss the
matter at that particular moment because
there were some strangers in the office.

139. Key
Back at the office, a colleague of mine asked
me if I had realized that the proposed
agreement would be partially against the
company policy not to accept workers that
have already retired. I pretended to be really
busy and late for an appointment, and left for
the cafeteria. Actually, I didn't want to discuss
the matter at that particular moment because
there were some strangers in the office.

140. Contextual guesswork
After lunch I attended a _______ given by the
________, who is an _______ in tax legislation
and has a _____ ______ in political science.
He said his government intends to _______
welfare programs and ____citizens, raise
funds to improve _______ education and build
a public _______, and establish tougher limits
on vehicle emissions because he _______ this
is what the people expect from the
government.

141. Key
After lunch I attended a lecture given by the
mayor, who is an expert in tax legislation and
has a graduate degree in political science. He
said his government intends to assist welfare
programs and senior citizens, raise funds to
improve college education and build a public
library, and establish tougher limits on vehicle
emissions because he assumes this is what the
people expect from the government.

142. Homonyms, homophones, and
homographs
Spelling and sound

143. Which is which?
• Same pronuncation, same spelling, different meaning
• Same pronunciation, different spelling, different meaning
• Different pronunciation, same spelling, different meaning

144. 1. /branchiz/ 2. /drıl/ 3. /beri/ 4. /rou/ 5. /minit/
6. /sait/
• Classes were interrupted for a fire …
• Wait a … I’m on my way!
• Squirrels … their nuts for the winter.
• We got a seat in the back …
• Our company has …. in the Far East.
• We need to create a … to sell our
products.

145. 1. /branchiz/ 2. /drıl/ 3. /beri/ 4. /rou/ 5. /minit/
6. /sait/
• Classes were interrupted for a fire drill.
• Wait a minute I’m on my way!
• Squirrels bury their nuts for the winter.
• We got a seat in the back row
• Our company has branches in the Far
East.
• We need to create a site to sell our
products.

146. 1. /branchiz/ 2. /drıl/ 3. /beri/ 4. /rau/ 5.
/mainyut/ 6. /sait/
• Some living creatures are so … they can
only be seen with a microscope
• It was a case of love at first … !
• The fruit is part of the … family.
• The mahogany tree has robust …
• We had another …. about our finances.
• Could you … a hole so I can hang this
frame?

147. 1. /branchiz/ 2. /drıl/ 3. /beri/ 4. /rau/ 5.
/mainyut/ 6. /sait/
• Some living creatures are so minute they
can only be seen with a microscope
• It was a case of love at first sight!
• The fruit is part of the berry family.
• The mahogany tree has robust branches.
• We had another row about our finances.
• Could you drill a hole so I can hang this
frame?

148. Common collocations in business
reports

149. • Announce record profits
• A decline in demand
• Fierce competition
• Meet targets
• Go into production
• Boost sales and profits
• Stimulate growth
• Allocate funds
• Chair a committee
• Narrow/wide profit margins
• Set clear objectives
• Call in the receivers

150. • Generate business
• Unique selling points
• Pay dividends
• Make business sense
• Maintain quality
• Promote interests
• Satisfy demands
• A hike in prices
• Hold a meeting
• Affect the bottom line
• Balance the books
• Target market

151. Use the word in brackets to form a
collocation to replace the words in bold

152. • The company is pleased to report a strong
increase in profits over the quarter.
(ANNOUNCE)

153. • The new health and safety committee is to be
run by a retired doctor. (CHAIR)

154. • There is increasingly intense rivalry between
airline companies. (FIERCE)

155. • The company’s exports to Japan had
considerable growth over the last decade.
(WIDE)

156. • The sales figures for March show a little
decrease on those for February. (DECLINE)

157. • Our sales in the domestic market are certain
to have a rise next year. (BOOST)

158. • We feel that this proposal is completely
feasible and profitable. (SENSE)

159. • Business leaders hope new government
policies will help growth pick up once again.
(STIMULATE)

160. In business, the key word is…
COMPETITION

161. Common collocating adjectives
• Cut-throat competition
• Keen competition
• Ferocious competition
• Stiff competition
• Fierce competition
• Intense competition
• Tough competition
• Strong competition
• Direct competition
• Intensified competition

162. Competing or Competitive?
• Products
• Bids
• Product
• Position
• Offerings
• Pressure
• Suppliers
• Technologies

163. Observe the following
collocations
Using “competitive”

164. • He was criticized for being too Eurocentric and
failing to pay attention to the competitive
threat from South East Asia.

165. • Businesses can sustain their performances
over the long term by having some
competitive edge/advantage to keep them
ahead.

166. • For the money-conscious consumer,
alternative retail outlets can offer organic
food at more competitive prices.

167. • First Chicago will enhance its competitive
position and boost its financial growth
through the transaction, which is expected to
add to earnings immediately.

168. • Mall stores are under more competitive
pressure than at any other time in their 40-
year history, with new discounters and
superstores increasingly moving in alongside
traditional malls.

169. • Decades of management theorizing around
the world have produced piles of books, many
of which promise to deliver the secrets of
success. But there is no consensus on
competitive strategy.

170. • CSM can provide an in-depth assessment of
automotive suppliers for competitive
benchmarking and profiling activities, as well
as potential merger and acquisition, and/or
strategic alliance purposes.

171. • The recovery potential to be taken into
account in the competitive analysis is thus
reduced by the impact of these other factors,
since they do not involve any direct causal link
with the merger.

172. • Samarco may, at its discretion, cancel any
competitive bidding without being subject to
any type of claim on the part of the bidders.

173. Extra Videos
• http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/organgrind
er/2009/dec/01/best-tv-ads-of-the-noughties-
decade
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=GHX2mvFVQMs&NR=1

174. Bibliography
BRUNER, J. (1986) Actual Minds, possible worlds.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
HILL, J. (1999) Collocational competence. English
Teaching Professional, 11, p. 3-6
Kachru, B.B. (1985). Standards, codification and
sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer
circle. In R. Quirk and H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the
world: Teaching and learning the language and
literatures (pp. 11-36). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
JOHNSON, K. (2001) An Introduction to Foreign
Language Learning and Teaching . Harlow : Longman

175. Bibliography
LEWIS, M. (1993) The lexical approach, LTP
THORNBURY, S. (1998) The lexical approach: a
journey without maps. MET, 7 (4), p. 7-13