This presentation describes the different theories used when designing instruction

1. Instructional Design Theories
Summaries

2. Learning Theories

3. The information processing theory
• Evolved from the American experimental tradition in
psychology.
• Comes from the study of cognitive development.
• The theory proposes that like the computer, the human
mind is a system that processes information through the
application of logical rules and strategies.
• The components of the I.P. Theory are:
▫ The Store Model which comprises of:
 Sensory register – receives information and stores it quickly
 Short term memory – the mental processing unit which
information is stored temporarily, where the decision is made
if to discard or move to long term. E.g. Name of street to drop
off a package for a friend.
 Long term memory – the area where information is stored
permanently and can be retrieved when needed. E.g.
Multiplication tables

4. Dale’s Cone of Learning
• its theory is viewed the earliest development of
the Instructional Technology field.
• Dale classified the different types of learning
experiences, from the bottom (active
experiences) to the top (passive experiences).

5. Dale’s Cone of Learning
• Active experiences represent concrete
ideas, while passive experiences represent
abstract ideas. This cone shows the connection
between them, which is an important principle
of teaching and learning.

7. Multiple Intelligences
• The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that
there are a number of distinct forms of
intelligence that each individual possesses in
varying degrees.
• Gardner proposes seven primary forms:
linguistic, musical, logical-
mathematical, spatial, body-
kinesthetic, intrapersonal
(e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal
(e.g., social skills).

8. Multiple Intelligences
• Principles:
▫ Individuals should be encouraged to use their
preferred intelligences in learning.
▫ Instructional activities should appeal to different
forms of intelligence.
▫ Assessment of learning should measure multiple
forms of intelligence.

9. The Educational Theory of
Jerome Bruner
• Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are
worthwhile learning? What are the goals of
education?
• Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How
is it different from belief? What is a mistake? A
lie?

10. The Educational Theory of
Jerome Bruner
• Theory of Human Nature: What is a human
being? How does it differ from other species?
What are the limits of human potential?
• Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are
skills and knowledge acquired?
• Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By
what methods? What will the curriculum be?

11. The Educational Theory of
Jerome Bruner
• Theory of Consensus: Why do people disagree?
How is consensus achieved? Whose opinion
takes precedence?

12. MODEL OF SCHOOL LEARNING
• According to Reeves (1997) Carroll's model
include six elements with one output variable,
one input variable and 4 intermediate variables.
• Academic Achievement is the output (as
measured by various sorts standard achievement
tests)

13. MODEL OF SCHOOL LEARNING
• Aptitude is the main explanatory variable defined as
the "the amount of time a student needs to learn a
given task, unit of instruction, or curriculum to an
acceptable criterion of mastery under optimal
conditions of instruction and student motivation"
(Carroll, 1989: 26). This definition of aptitude very
much reminds the principle behind mastery
learning. "High aptitude is indicated when a student
needs a relatively small amount of time to learn, low
aptitude is indicated when a student needs much
more than average time to learn" (Carrol: 1989: 26).

14. MODEL OF SCHOOL LEARNING
• Opportunity to learn: Amount of time available
for learning both in class and within homework.
Carroll (1998:26) notes that "frequently,
opportunity to learn is less than required in view
of the students aptitude

15. MODEL OF SCHOOL LEARNING
• Ability to understand instruction: relates to learning
skills, information needed to understand, and
language comprehension.
• Quality of instruction: good instructional design, e.g.
like it is usually defined in behaviorist frameworks
like nine events of instruction. If quality of
instruction is bad, time needed will increase.
• Perseverance: Amount of time a student is willing to
spend on a given task or unit of instruction. This is
an operational and measurable definition for
motivation for learning.

16. Social Learning Theory
• The social learning theory of Bandura
emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and
emotional reactions of others.
• The most common (and pervasive) examples of
social learning situations are television
commercials.

17. • Principles:
• The highest level of observational learning is
achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and then
enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior
into words, labels or images results in better
retention than simply observing.
• Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled
behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
• Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled
behavior if the model is similar to the observer
and has admired status and the behavior has
functional value.

18. Conditions of Learning
• This theory stipulates that there are several
different types or levels of learning.
• The significance of these classifications is that
each different type requires different types of
instruction.
• Gagne identifies five major categories of
learning: verbal information, intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes.

19. Conditions of Learning
• the theory outlines nine instructional events and
corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception)
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer
(generalization).

20. Conditions of Learning
• Principles:
▫ Different instruction is required for different
learning outcomes.
▫ Events of learning operate on the learner in ways
that constitute the conditions of learning.
▫ The specific operations that constitute
instructional events are different for each different
type of learning outcome.
▫ Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills
are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.

21. Social Development Theory
• The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical
framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of
cognition
• A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea
that the potential for cognitive development
depends upon the "zone of proximal
development" (ZPD): a level of development
attained when children engage in social
behavior.

22. Social Development Theory
Principles:
• Cognitive development is limited to a certain
range at any given age.
• Full cognitive development requires social
interaction.

23. Advanced Organizers
• It is a method of bridging and linking old
information with something new.
• An advance organizer is information that
is presented prior to learning and that can
be used by the learner to organize and
interpret new incoming information
(Mayer, 2003).

24. Advanced Organizers
• Examples and Types of advance
organizers
▫ Advance & Graphical Organizers
▫ Expository - describe the new content.
▫ Narrative - presents the new information in the
form of a story to students.
▫ Skimming - used to look over the new material
and gain a basic overview.
▫ Graphic organizer - visuals to set up or outline the
new information.
▫ Concept mapping

25. Instructional Theories

26. Elaboration Theory
• According to elaboration
theory, instruction should be organized in
increasing order of complexity for optimal
learning
• A key idea of elaboration theory is that the
learner needs to develop a meaningful
context into which subsequent ideas and
skills can be assimilated.

27. Elaboration Theory
• Elaboration theory applies to the design of
instruction for the cognitive domain.
• Principles:
▫ Instruction will be more effective if it follows an
elaboration strategy, i.e., the use of epitomes
containing motivators, analogies, summaries, and
syntheses.
▫ There are four types of relationships important in
the design of instruction: conceptual, procedural,
theoretical and learning pre-requisites.

28. Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction
• Gagne created a nine-step process
called the events of instruction, which
correlate to and address the
conditions of learning.

29. Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction
Instructional Event Internal Mental Process
1. Gain attention Stimuli activates receptors
2. Inform learners of Creates level of expectation for
objectives learning
3. Stimulate recall of Retrieval and activation of short-
prior learning term memory
4. Present the content Selective perception of content

30. Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction
5. Provide "learning Semantic encoding for storage long-term
guidance" memory
6. Elicit performance Responds to questions to enhance encoding
and verification
(practice)
Reinforcement and assessment of correct
7. Provide feedback
performance
Retrieval and reinforcement of content as
8. Assess performance
final evaluation
9. Enhance retention and Retrieval and generalization of learned skill
transfer to the job to new situation

31. Cognitive apprenticeship
• Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of the
process where a master of a skill teaches
that skill to an apprentice.
• By using processes such as modeling and
coaching, cognitive apprenticeships also
support the three stages of skill acquisition
described in the expertise literature: the
cognitive stage, the associative stage, and
the autonomous stage (Anderson, 1983;
Fitts & Posner, 1967).

32. Bloom’s Taxonomy
• Bloom's Taxonomy refers to a classification of the
different objectives that educators set for students
(learning objectives).
• Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives
into three "domains:" Affective, Psychomotor, and
Cognitive.
• Within the taxonomy learning at the higher levels is
dependent on having attained prerequisite
knowledge and skills at lower levels (Orlich, et al.
2004). A goal of Bloom's Taxonomy is to motivate
educators to focus on all three domains, creating a
more holistic form of education.

33. Adult Learning (K. P. Cross)
• Cross (1981) presents the Characteristics of Adults as
Learners (CAL) model in the context of her analysis of
lifelong learning programs. The model attempts to
integrate other theoretical frameworks for adult learning
such as andragogy ( Knowles ), experiential learning (
Rogers ), and lifespan psychology.
• The CAL model consists of two classes of variables:
personal characteristics and situational characteristics.
Personal characteristics include: aging, life phases, and
developmental stages.
• The CAL model is intended to provide guidelines for
adult education programs. There is no known research to
support the model.

34. Adult Learning (K. P. Cross)
Principles:
• 1. Adult learning programs should capitalize on the
experience of participants.
• 2. Adult learning programs should adapt to the
aging limitations of the participants.
• 3. Adults should be challenged to move to
increasingly advanced stages of personal
development.
• 4. Adults should have as much choice as possible in
the availability and organization of learning
programs.

35. MASTERY LEARNING (BLOOM)
• Six levels of learning according to Bloom et al
• The levels are thought to build on one another.
The six levels in the figure pertain to thinking,
the so-called cognitive domain.

36. Situated Learning (J. Lave)
• Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is
a function of the activity, context and culture in
which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts
with most classroom learning activities which
involve knowledge which is abstract and out of
context.

37. Situated Learning (J. Lave)
• Social interaction is a critical component of
situated learning -- learners become involved in
a "community of practice" which embodies
certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired.

38. Situated Learning (J. Lave)
• Scope/Application:
• Situated learning is a general theory of
knowledge acquisition . It has been applied in
the context of technology-based learning
activities for schools that focus on problem-
solving skills (Cognition & Technology Group at
Vanderbilt, 1993). McLellan (1995) provides a
collection of articles that describe various
perspectives on the theory.

39. Conversation Theory (G. Pask)
• The Conversation Theory developed by G. Pask
originated from a cybernetics framework and
attempts to explain learning in both living
organisms and machines. The fundamental idea of
the theory was that learning occurs through
conversations about a subject matter which serve to
make knowledge explicit.
Scope/Application:
• Conversation theory applies to the learning of any
subject matter. Pask (1975) provides an extensive
discussion of the theory applied to the learning of
statistics (probability).

40. Motivational Theories
& Their Application to Teaching
and Learning

41. MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
• Abraham Maslow developed a theory of
personality that has influenced a number of
different fields, including education.
• This theory accurately describes many realities
of personal experiences. Many people find they
can understand what Maslow says. They can
recognize some features of their experience or
behavior which is true and identifiable but which
they have never put into words

43. ARCS - Motivation Theory
• According to John Keller, there are four major
categories of motivational strategies:
▫ Attention,
▫ Relevance,
▫ Confidence, and
▫ Satisfaction.

44. ARCS - Motivation Theory
• Attention
▫ Perceptual Arousal
Gain and maintain student attention by the use of
novel, surprising, incongruous, or uncertain events in
instruction.
▫ Inquiry Arousal
Stimulate information-seeking behavior by posing, or
having the learner generate, questions or a problem to
solve.
▫ Variability
Maintain student interest by varying the elements of
instruction

45. ARCS - Motivation Theory
• Relevance
▫ Familiarity -- Adapt instruction, use concrete
language, use examples and concepts that are related
to the learner's experience and values to help them
integrate new knowledge.
▫ Goal Orientation - Provide statements or examples
that present the objectives and utility of the
instruction, and either present goals for
accomplishment or have the learner define them.
▫ Motive Matching -- Adapt by using teaching strategies
that match the motive profiles of the students.

46. ARCS - Motivation Theory
• Confidence
▫ Expectancy for Success - Make learners aware of
performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
▫ Challenge Setting - Provide multiple achievement
levels that allow learners to set personal goals or
standards of accomplishment, and performance
opportunities that allow them to experience
success.
▫ Attribution Molding - Provide feedback that
supports student ability and effort as the
determinants of success.

47. ARCS - Motivation Theory
• Satisfaction
▫ Natural Consequences - Provide opportunities to
use newly acquired knowledge or skill in a real or
simulated setting
▫ Positive Consequences - Provide feedback and
reinforcements that will sustain the desired
behavior
▫ Equity - Maintain consistent standards and
consequences for task accomplishment

48. Expectancy theory
• Expectancy theory is about the mental processes
regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the
processes that an individual undergoes to make
choices

49. Expectancy theory
• "This theory emphasizes the need for schools to
relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure
that the rewards provided are those rewards
deserved and wanted by the recipients.“
• Expectancy theory predicts that students in a school
will be motivated when they believe that:
▫ putting in more effort will yield better academic
performance
▫ better academic performance will lead to student
rewards, such as an increase in academic
qualifications or scholarships
▫ these predicted school rewards are valued by the
students in question.

50. Equity theory
• Equity Theory attempts to explain relational
satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair
distributions of resources within interpersonal
relationships.
• Equity theory is considered as one of the justice
theories.
• Equity theory proposes that individuals who
perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or
over-rewarded will experience distress, and that this
distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the
relationship.

51. Equity theory
• It focuses on determining whether the distribution
of resources is fair to both relational partners.
• Equity Theory consists of four propositions:
▫ Individuals seek to maximize their outcomes (where
outcomes are defined as rewards minus costs)
▫ Groups can maximize collective rewards by developing
accepted systems for equitably apportioning rewards
and costs among members.
▫ When individuals find themselves participating in
inequitable relationships, they become distressed.
▫ Individuals who perceive that they are in an
inequitable relationship attempt to eliminate their
distress by restoring equity.

52. Two-factor theory (also known as
Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory)
• Two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's
motivation-hygiene theory) was developed by
Frederick Herzberg, a psychologist who found
that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction acted
independently of each other. Two Factor Theory
states that there are certain factors in the
workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a
separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction.

53. Two-factor theory (also known as
Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory)
• According to Herzberg, individuals are not
content with the satisfaction of lower-order
needs at work, for example, those associated
with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant
working conditions.
• Rather, individuals look for the gratification of
higher-level psychological needs having to do
with achievement, recognition, responsibility,
advancement, and the nature of the work itself

54. Two-factor theory (also known as
Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory)
• satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a
continuum with one increasing as the other
diminishes, but are independent phenomena.
• This theory suggests that to improve job
attitudes and productivity, administrators must
recognize and attend to both sets of
characteristics and not assume that an increase
in satisfaction leads to an decrease in un-
pleasurable dissatisfaction

55. Attribution theory
• The theory is concerned with the ways in which
people explain (or attribute) the behavior of
others or themselves (self-attribution) with
something else. It explores how individuals
"attribute" causes to events and how this
cognitive perception effects their usefulness in
an organization.

56. Attribution theory
• The theory divides the way people attribute
causes into two types.
▫ “External" or "situational" attribution assigns
causality to an outside factor, such as the weather.
▫ "Internal" or "dispositional" attribution assigns
causality to factors within the person, such as their
own level of intelligence or other variables that
make the individual responsible for the event.

57. Cognitive Dissonance (L. Festinger)
• According to cognitive dissonance theory, there
is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency
among their cognitions (i.e., beliefs, opinions).
When there is an inconsistency between
attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something
must change to eliminate the dissonance. In the
case of a discrepancy between attitudes and
behavior, it is most likely that the attitude will
change to accommodate the behavior.

58. Cognitive Dissonance (L. Festinger)
• Dissonance theory applies to all situations involving
attitude formation and change. It is especially
relevant to decision-making and problem-solving.
• Principles:
▫ Dissonance results when an individual must choose
between attitudes and behaviors that are
contradictory.
▫ Dissonance can be eliminated by reducing the
importance of the conflicting beliefs, acquiring new
beliefs that change the balance, or removing the
conflicting attitude or behavior.

59. Social identity Theory
• It is composed of four elements:
▫ Categorization: We often put others (and ourselves) into
categories. Labeling someone a Muslim, a Turk, a Gimp, a
noob or a soccer player are ways of saying other things
about these people.
▫ Identification: We also associate with certain groups (our
ingroups), which serves to bolster our self-esteem.
▫ Comparison: We compare our groups with other groups,
seeing a favorable bias toward the group to which we
belong.
▫ Psychological Distinctiveness: We desire our identity to be
both distinct from and positively compared with other
groups

60. Uncertainty Reduction Theory
• reduction uncertainty in behaviour.
• URT was developed to describe the
interrelationships between seven important
factors in any dyadic exchange: verbal
communication, nonverbal
expressiveness, information-seeking
behavior, intimacy, reciprocity, similarity, and
liking.

61. Uncertainty Reduction Theory

62. ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL
• There are two ways we make decisions and hence get
persuaded:
▫ When we are motivated and able to pay attention, we
take a logical, conscious thinking, central route to
decision-making. This can lead to permanent change
in our attitude as we adopt and elaborate upon the
speaker’s arguments.
▫ In other cases, we take the peripheral route. Here we
do not pay attention to persuasive arguments but are
swayed instead by surface characteristics such as
whether we like the speaker. In this case although we
do change, it is only temporary (although it is to a state
where we may be susceptible to further change).

63. Systems Theory (Thinking)
• systems thinking is a mode of thinking, a process
in which one not only analyzes the entire
organization and breaks it down into its
constituent parts, but also considers carefully
the relationships between all of the parts.
• With systems thinking one must focus on all or
almost all of the interactions and
interrelationships that occur within the
organization being studied.

64. Systems Theory (Thinking)
• It allows one to look more carefully at the overall
corporate situation and make informed
decisions that are based upon an understanding
of how the entire organization operates within a
social context.