1. NOUNS
Nouns are words that denotate a person, a thing etc.
Nouns may be subdivided into
Simple (just one root)
Ex.: book, raining
Compound (when two or more simple are got together)
Ex.: bookshelf, raincoat
Primitive (the one that origins another noun)
Ex.: book, rain
Derivative (when it has been added a prefix or a suffix)
Ex.: booker, raining
Nouns may vary in kinds as
Proper (when they name people, places, rivers, days of the week, months
of the year etc.)
Ex.: Susan, Amazon, Sunday
Common (when they name all other things – common things)
Ex.: book, car, fish
Nouns may vary in gender as
Masculine (when they refer to the male sex)
Ex.: boy, actor, emperor
Feminine (when they refer to the female sex)
Ex.: girl, actress, empress
Common (when they fit either sex)
Ex.: singer, teacher, dancer
Neuter (when they fit no sex at all, but refer to objects, animals, nature
phenomena etc)
Ex.: tree, baby, rain, sun
Nouns may vary in number as
Singular (when they refer to just a unit)
Ex.: tree, baby, girl
Plural (when they refer to more than one unit)
Ex.: trees, babies, girls
Formation of plural:
Collective (when they name a group of things thought of as a unit)
Ex.: flock, crew
The collective noun is usually a SINGULAR word (for it denotates
a unit.) However, a collective noun admits a NOTIONAL
AGREEMENT, that is, it is possible to use either singular or plural
depending on the context.

2. Ex.: The crew is unanimous on their landing right now.
The crew are divided on their opinions.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that substitute for a noun or a noun equivalent, which is called
the pronoun antecedent. This pronoun antecedent may be expressed or implicit.
Pronouns are restricted to relation or reference. They constitute a closed class of
function words that work as nominals and should agree with their antecedents in
gender, number and person.
The antecedent may be a noun, another pronoun, a phrase or a clause.
Ex.: Everyone has his wishes denied sometimes.
Don’t touch those pictures. They are mine.
Susan didn’t mean hurting her husband. He understood her wrongly.
Pronouns can be
1) personal (Three cases: subjective, objective, possessive)
2) reflexive
3) interrogative
4) demonstrative
5) indefinite
6) relative
1) Personal pronouns – They show the grammatical categories of person,
number, gender or case.
Cases
Nominative Objective Possessive
(subjective)
I Me Mine
You You Yours
He Him His
She Her Hers
It Its Its
We Us Ours
You You Yours
They Them Theirs

3. 2) Reflexive pronouns – They refer back, or reflect the antecedent
Ex.: He hurt himself with a knife.
A Reflexive pronoun has double function: reflexive and emphatic
Ex.: I myself did the dishes. Nobody helped me.
The reflexive pronouns are
Myself
Yourself
Himself
Herself
Itself
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves
3) Interrogative pronouns – They indicate a question at the same time that
substitute for a noun (who, what, which).
Ex.: What is your name?
Who is that woman?
Which pen do you prefer?
→ WHO may appear in nominative case Who
objective case Whom
possessive case Whose
4) Demonstrative pronouns – They are used to show and substitute for a
noun.
Ex.: These are my friends.
This is our class.
5) Indefinite pronouns – They are used to refer to persons, things or
conditions, without specifying them (none, one,
anyone,someone,somebody, everybody, no one, nobody, all, many,
more, most, few, several, enough, others).
Ex.: Someone has to help me.
No one came to help me.
6) Relative pronouns – They are used to refer to a noun in another clause
(who – whom, whose -, that, which [and their compounds: whoever,
whomever, whichever]).
Ex.: That is the man who bought my car.
She is the woman whom I talked to you about.
The book she gave me is excellent.
The guy whose book I borrowed lives in Alabama.

4. ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words used to describe, modify or determine the nouns or
noun equivalents. They are semantic borderlines to nouns and pronouns
because they limit their meanings.
a) Proper adjectives
The proper adjectives are made of proper nouns (and take initial capital letter).
Russian, American, French etc
Ex.: a Russian book
an American spy
b) Descriptive adjectives
The descriptive adjectives show the quality or state referring to the noun.
Adjectives may come in attributive position (directly before a noun) or in
predicative position (right after a copula).
(when they are attributive, they form a phrase with the modified noun).
Ex.: wise man – good person – deep river
But to make statements or sentences out of these phrases, adjectives are
placed in the predicate, after the linking verb. They will be either a subject
complement or an object complement. So, we call them predicative.
Ex.: The river seems deep. (subject complement)
That man is tired. (subject complement)
She found the ceremony boring. (object complement)
So,
In a phrase, the adjective is attributive;
In a sentence, the adjective is predicative.
c) Quantitative adjectives
The quantitative adjectives show how much of a thing it is said. It is related only
to singular uncountable nouns.
some, little, half, any, whole, much, all
Ex.: There is still some sugar left
I have much trouble.
d) Numeral adjectives
The numeral adjectives show how many or in which order the modified noun or
nouns come.
How many things there are ⇨ cardinals
The serial order the things are ⇨ ordinals
How many times a thing is repeated ⇨ multiplicatives
e) Demonstrative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives are used to point out or demonstrate, show the nouns.
this, that, these, those
Ex.: You don’t need such humiliation.

5. These books belong to me.
Observation ⇨ There is a category of demonstrative adjectives,
the articles a/an and the that has a peculiar way to determine the
following noun. The articles have peculiar rules of usage. But, as a
category, the articles may be included within the adjectives.
f) Indefinite adjectives
Indefinite adjectives denote an indefinite number or idea of things (that’s why
some grammarians call them Indefinite Numeral Adjectives).
Some, any, one, certain, such, all, several, enough, no, few, little, many, other
etc
Ex.: Do you need any books?
There are several books here to choose.
⇨ The difference between quantitative adjectives and indefinite
adjectives is that the quantitatives are related to singular uncountable
nouns and the indefinites are related to plural countable nouns.
g) Distributive adjectives
The distributive adjectives show the things are taken separately or in separate
lots.
each, every, either, neither
Ex.: Each student should take this task.
The common noun fits either gender.
h) Possessive adjectives
The possessive adjectives indicate possession of the modified noun.
My, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
Ex.: My pencil is here.
Our classes start at 7.
i) Interrogative adjectives
The interrogative adjectives are used to ask questions.
which, what
Ex.: Which flavor do you prefer?
What color is that?
j) Relative adjectives
What, which, whatever, whichever
Ex.: Make whatever comments you desire.
She ran out of money, which circumstance made her stay home.
k) Intensive adjectives: VERY and OWN
These adjectives are used to give emphasis
Ex.: This is the very book I was looking for.
He did his own exercise.
In general, any word which modifies a noun or a noun equivalent
is an adjective.

6. 1) There are cases when a noun modifies a noun. It functions as an adjective
on that particular case but, even though, one cannot call it an adjective, as a
category, but an incidental adjective.
Ex.: horse race
fire department.
2) There are other cases when a primary adverb or a preposition-adverb
(adverb derived from preposition) is used as an adjective. Again, one can
see a case of incidental adjective.
Ex.: I need a day off.
The game is over.
EXERCISE
1) Identify and classify the adjectives.
a) The young lady bought a new hat which cost much money.
b) Do you have any books to lend me?
c) I’ll call you some Monday.
d) A shared joy is a double joy.
e) You may use either pencil.
f) This is the eleventh floor.
g) She has a beautiful dress.
h) He is jealous.
i) That conversation makes her angry.
j) Give whatever examples you choose.
k) Which color do you prefer your backpack?
l) Rio de Janeiro is wonderful.
m) New York is also a fascinating city.
n) I could marry you this very day.
o) The guides seemed tired.
p) She made me a French cake.