This document discusses challenges and opportunities in expanding higher education systems to provide opportunities to more students, especially those from low socioeconomic backgrounds. It summarizes research on increasing student demand for higher education in Australia and strategies to improve access and participation. Key points discussed include expanding access while managing costs, developing early relationships with prospective students to shape aspirations, and rethinking how institutions and governments can better support student aspirations. University outreach programs are also discussed as a strategy to encourage underrepresented groups to continue their education.

1. Desire and possibility in higher education:
What do expanded systems have to offer
the masses?
Trevor Gale, Deakin University, Australia
trevor.gale@deakin.edu.au

2. Three challenges for HE
• to expand HE provision and low Volume 52 Number 2 June 2011
SES participation in a context of
low unmet student demand
• To develop (much earlier) new
relationships with prospective
students Special Issue:
New Capacities for
Student Equity and
• to rethink student aspirations Widening Participation
and how institutions and in Higher Education
governments contribute to
their realisation

4. Australian higher education policy cycles
• University of Sydney
founded in 1850
• Expansion periods:
Menzies (1950s / 1960s);
Whitlam (1970s);
Dawkins (late 1980s /
early 1990s).
• Rudd/Gillard 2009 –
proposed new expansion

5. The 20/40 targets
Targets “integral to achieving the Government’s vision of a
stronger and fairer Australia” (Australian Government 2009: 5)
• by 2020, 20% of all • stronger in terms of “a
undergraduate students highly educated
in higher education will workforce … to advance
come from low the growth of a dynamic
socioeconomic status knowledge economy”
(SES) backgrounds; • fairer by “ensuring that
• by 2025, 40% of all 25- Australians of all
34 year olds will hold a backgrounds who have
Bachelor’s degree. the ability to study at
university get the
opportunity to do so”

6. The company that Australia wants to keep
Source: Bradley et al. 2008: 20
Australia Attainment 25 to 34 years By 2025 40% 32% in 2008
Australia Participation low SES students By 2020 20% 15% in 2008

7. Conditions of entry to higher education
• the availability of Aspiration Achievement
places,
• students’ academic
achievement,
Accessibility Availability
• the accessibility of
higher education to
qualified aspirants,
and
• students’ aspirations
Entry to higher
for higher education. education
Source: Anderson et al. 1980

8. Current and target bachelor degree attainment rate,
25-34 year olds, Australia, 2010-2025
4,000,000
3,677,393 25-34 year olds
3,600,000
3,200,000
40% of 25-34 year olds with
2,800,000 degree
2,400,000
Number
32-34% 25-34 year olds
2,000,000 with degree
1,600,000
Shortfall =
Shortfall =
Shortfall
1,200,000 220,643
220,643
= 220,643
800,000
400,000
Target
= 25,000
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 new annual
Year enrolments
Derived from ABS data 3222.0 – Population Projections, Australia, 2006 to 2101, Using Series B projected population growth

9. Unmet student demand and institutional supply
Estimated unmet demand, Australia, 2001-2008
Percentage of eligible
20.0%
applicants
10.0%
0.0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Source: DEEWR 2011: 77
Commencing domestic undergraduate students, Australia, 2000-2007
Number of students
230,000
210,000
190,000 Bachelor
170,000 degree
150,000
All under-
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
graduate
Year
Source: Derived from DEEWR, Students, Selected Higher Education Statistics, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011

10. Projected student demand for HE
18.0%
16.0%
14.0%
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0% Unmet student
2.0% demand
0.0%
-2.0%
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
-4.0%
-6.0%
Insufficient
-8.0% student demand
-10.0%
-12.0%
-14.0%
-16.0%
-18.0%
Conditions apply! Rate of increase of supply (20,000 places per year for 4 years from 2010-2013); the retention
rate of Year 12 students (currently 75%); the rate of application to university by school students (currently 40%);
the completion rate of university students (currently 72%); the rate of immigration of people with bachelor
degrees; etc.
Sources: derived from ABS 2008a, 2008b; DEEWR 2009: 33, 68, 75; Wheelahan 2009: 265

11. 25,000 (plus) extra commencing students needed
every year, from 2010 to 2021
180,000
7,835 2,274
24,498
160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
Increase
80,000 on
previous
60,000
year
40,000
Elligble
20,000 accepting
offer
0
2008 2009 2010 2011
Source: DEEWR 2011: 77

12. Final year of school: increasing numbers
but decreasing proportion
Number of Year 12 students, Australia, 2000-2008
210,000 206,630
205,000
Number of students
200,000
195,000
190,000 191, 602
185,000
180,000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Source: Derived from ABS Cat. 4221.0 – Schools, Australia, 2008, Table 43a
Secondary school apparent retention rate,
Year 10-Year 12, Australia, 2000-2008
78.0%
Retention rate
76.0% 75.6%
74.0% 74.4%
72.0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Source: Derived from ABS Cat. 4221.0 – Schools, Australia, 2008, Table 64a

13. Increasing final year students …
decreasing eligibility for university entry
Student retention to final year of school
and eligibility to obtain a university entry score
Year Cohort Entry score % Entry score %
eligible ineligible
2000 38211 27839 73 10372 27
2002 38820 27749 71 11071 29
2004 38451 27235 71 11216 29
2006 39579 26233 66 13346 34
2009 43191 25305 59 17886 41
Trend Data: University Entry Score eligible and ineligible students, 2000-2009

14. Increasing numbers in further education
VET students by age group, Australia, 2004-2008
Age group 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
% % % % %
15-19 26.5 27.3 30.2 29.9 30.2
20-24 19.0 19.0 18.8 18.3 18.2
25-44 10.2 10.2 9.9 9.7 9.7
45-64 6.1 6.3 5.9 5.9 5.9
65 and older 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0
15-64 11.3 11.4 11.4 11.3 11.3
Source: NCVER 2009: 8
Number of students in VET, Australia, 2000-2008
Number of students
1,750,000 1,721,400
1,696,400
1,700,000
1,650,000
1,600,000
1,550,000
1,500,000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Source: NCVER 2009: 8

15. Australian 15 to 19 year olds have higher than average rates
of non-participation in education and employment
Proportion of persons not in education and
2006
unemployed
Country 15-19 years %
Australia 3.7
Canada 2.9
Denmark 1.9
Finland 1.7
Source: Australian Social
Netherlands 1.1 Inclusion Board 2009: 55
New Zealand 3.7
Sweden 2.0
Switzerland 2.8
United Kingdom 5.3
United States 2.1
OECD average 3.0
EU 19 average 2.9

16. Designing university outreach programs
• Increased program activity by
universities to encourage and enable
school students to continue on to
university study
• Significant government funding: $14
million in 2010 rising to $42 million
in 2013
• Targeting under-represented groups
and focusing on students earlier in
their schooling
See: www.equity101.info

17. Early
interventions:
• Year 10 students
• building student
aspirations
• low SES
backgrounds,
Indigenous, rural
and remote
• one-off events, on-
campus visits,
school visits by
university staff

18. Effective programs have at least ...
• 4 (from 10) design characteristics
• 3 (from 4) implementation strategies
• 2 (from 3) equity perspectives
Gale et al. (2010) http://www.equity101.info/content/Interventions-early-
school-means-improve-higher-education-outcomes-disadvantaged-students

19. 4 strategies & 10 characteristics
Assembling resources Engaging learners Working together Building confidence
Communication and
People-rich Recognition of difference Collaboration
information
Financial support and/or Enhanced academic Familiarisation/site
Cohort-based
incentives curriculum experiences
Early, long-term, sustained Research driven
 Assembling resources involves committing human resources, financial resources
and time resources.
 Engaging learners involves learning and teaching of various orders: learning about
programs; student learning; and learning from others.
 Working together involves cooperation and partnership during program design
and implementation and through engaging student cohorts rather than simply
targeting individuals.
 Building confidence involves strengthening students awareness of and increasing
their familiarity with university.

20. strength of program composition
• Strength of program composition is assessed in terms of a balance
between the total number of program characteristics (depth) and the
number of program strategies from which they are drawn (breadth).

21. composition & equity orientation
 A program’s strength of composition provides one criterion used in the Design
and Evaluation Matrix.
 The second criterion is a program’s equity orientation. The overall likely
effectiveness of a program depends on its strength of composition and the
degree to which it is supported by an equity orientation toward policy and
practice.
 The research identified 3 equity perspectives comprised by this orientation.
Equity or Social Inclusion Orientation
Researching ‘local knowledge’ Building capacity in
Unsettling deficit views and negotiating local communities, schools and
interventions universities

22. W = weak
M = moderate
S = strong
VS = very strong
Gale et al. 2010
U = unlikely
L = likely
QL = quite likely
VL = very likely

23. Towards a theory of student aspiration
• Doxic aspirations: informed by populist and
ideological conceptions of the good life; the
out-workings of beliefs and assumptions of
the dominant that circulate as natural and
commonsense
• Habituated aspirations: derived from
students’ biological and historical conditions;
informed by and re-assert individuals’ social-
structural positions in society.

24. Four ‘n’ Twenty Pies commercial http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ox2TF2aU6BU

25. That’s not how they want to be measured
“Maybe some of them don’t want to [go to university] . . . Maybe
that’s the issue, maybe what’s happening is that because we are
such middle class people, and the way that we measure success
is materialistic, you know, you’ve got a nice big house, you drive
a fancy car, you’ve got a massive mortgage, ‘Well you’re doing
really well there!’ Maybe it’s just that. Maybe it’s that they’re
choosing that that’s not how they want to be measured, and
that’s not as important to them as it is to us. Maybe we are just
saying ‘This is what’s important because that’s how we live’, but
it’s not how they feel they need to live.”
Sellar, S. (2009). Visceral Pedagogies and Other Ways of Knowing: Exploring Ethical Responsibility in
Relationships at the Periphery of Institutional Schooling, PhD Thesis, Adelaide, Australia: University of South
Australia.

26. Research study 1
2006/2007 survey of over 2000 Y9-12 students
in the western suburbs of Melbourne
“... interest in tertiary education among students in the
western region of Melbourne is strong overall.
Approximately 70% of respondents aspire to attend
university and about 85% aspire to some form of tertiary
education (university and TAFE). Only 8.2% opt explicitly
for an apprenticeship. Given the low socio-economic
status and culturally diverse nature of the western region,
this is an important finding in itself.” (Bowden & Doughney
2010: 118)
Bowden, M.P., & Doughney, J. (2010). Socio-economic status, cultural diversity and the aspirations of secondary
students in the Western Suburbs of Melbourne, Australia. Higher Education, 59(1), 115-129.

27. Research study 2
What would you like to do when you leave school?
lawyer hairdresser/beautician
vet professional sportsperson
marine biologist electrician/plumber/labourer
child psychologist mechanic/truck driver/wrecker
interior designer/architect police/army/SWAT/fireman
doctor/social worker/dentist secretary
Egyptologist chef
engineer/geologist author/illustrator/graphic designer
teacher (little kids/ business/shop owner
PE/English/Japanese) radio/news reporter/ cameraman
forensic scientist cabinetmaker
zookeeper/park ranger/animal carer racing driver
‘further studies’ (not sure what) shop assistant
army nurse/midwife/paramedic farmer
computer/game designer musician/dancer/performer
Prosser, B., McCallum, F., Milroy, P., Comber, B. & Nixon, H. (2008) ‘I am smart and I am not joking’: Aiming high in the
middle years of schooling. Australian Educational Researcher, 35 (2), 15-36.

28. What do you need to do to make this happen?
• get a good education
• get good marks
• get good grades
• study and work hard
• stay at school
• study hard in school and after school
• study, study, study and help from the
teachers
• try my best in school and try my hardest
• focus on school
• pass Year 12
• get my SACE
• complete my SACE
• concentrate on my work
• concentrate with no distractions
• don’t give up
• work hard
• study hard for tests
Prosser, B., McCallum, F., Milroy, P., Comber, B. & Nixon, H. (2008) ‘I am smart and I am not joking’: Aiming high in the
middle years of schooling. Australian Educational Researcher, 35 (2), 15-36.

29. A tale of two students
navigating between desire and possibility
When it came time to accept the offer of
When I found out that I didn’t get into university places I had to make a decision
medicine I was really upset. Being a between courses at UniSA and Flinders
doctor is all I ever wanted to do. Dad is an University. There was a combination of
architect and mum is a judge but both of reasons why I chose a teaching degree at
my grandparents were doctors. So Mum Mawson Lakes campus and not a
rang up the Dean to find out what we Bachelor of Nutrition and Dietetics at
could do. I found out I could do a Flinders. First, getting to Flinders from
Bachelor’s degree in Bioscience at north of the city would require two hours
Melbourne Uni and then do a test travelling time each day. I needed to
[GAMSAT] that would give me graduate reduce this so that I could increase my
entrance, particularly if I was willing to go work hours. Second, I had heard that
to country. The government is trying to there were not as many jobs available on
get more people to be country doctors. the completion of the Nutrition course.
So I went to Melbourne and did Honours And finally, I felt more comfortable going
and now I’m studying medicine at to Mawson Lakes because it was an area
Monash Gippsland, which is awesome. that I was familiar with.

30. different
experience distant
capacities to aspire
The disadvantaged have a…
‘smaller number of aspirational nodes’
(Appadurai 2004: 69)
‘thinner, weaker sense
experience near
of pathways from
concrete wants to
intermediate contexts to
general norms and back
again’ (Appadurai 2004:
69)

31. Aspirations expressed in terms of…
The advantaged: The disadvantaged:
• “concrete, individual • “specific goods and
wishes and wants … [but outcomes, often material
more often along with] and proximate … [which
justifications, narratives, often appear as] just
metaphors … [that connect bundles of [loosely
these wishes and wants connected] individual and
with] wider social scenes idiosyncratic wants.”
and contexts.”
Appadurai (2004: 68)

32. “the relatively rich and powerful invariably have
a more fully developed capacity to aspire
• … because the better off, by definition, have a more complex
experience of the relation between a wide range of ends and
means
• because they have a bigger stock of available experiences of
the relationship of aspirations and outcomes
• because they are in a better position to explore and harvest
diverse experiences of exploration and trial
• because of their many opportunities to link material goods
and immediate opportunities to more general and generic
possibilities and options” (Appadurai 2004: 68)

33. You gotta have a back-up plan
It’d be nice to play AFL [football] but you’ve always got to have
another… you gotta have a back-up plan … I don’t know … I’d like
to be like, work in medicine, or something … interesting. Yeah, go
to Uni … AIS, Australian Institute of Sport. [It] would be [nice to
be] a coach or something.
(Bok 2010: 174)
Bok, J. (2010). The capacity to aspire to higher education: ‘It’s like making them do a play without a script’.
Critical Studies in Education, 51(2), 163-178.

34. Poverty is partly a matter of operating with extremely
weak resources where the terms of recognition are
concerned . . . the poor are frequently in a position where
they are encouraged to subscribe to norms whose social
effect is to further diminish their dignity, exacerbate their
inequality, and deepen their lack of access to material
goods and services.
(Appadurai 2004: 66)

35. Three levels of aspiration
Individual Institutional National
Economic (ownership, Economic (finance, Economic (growth,
mobility) security) competition)
Socio-Cultural Symbolic (distinction, Socio-Political (social
(learning, agency) influence) inclusion, widening
participation)
Source: Sellar & Gale 2012

36. Conclusion
• Previous policy and practice conflated desire and
possibility. These are now decoupled in the current
policy environment although without recognition of
this decoupling by policy and much practice
• Making higher education possible requires more than a
supportive policy environment. Required is an
approach designed and evaluated by research
• Higher education policy and practice tend towards
manipulating aspiration (what is desirable and
possible). While continuing to work to increase access
we also need to work to change what is accessed.

37. Recent related publications
trevor.gale@deakin.edu.au
• Mills, C. & Gale, T. (2010) Schooling in Disadvantaged Communities: Playing the game from the back of the field.
Springer. ISBN: 978-90-481-3343-7 (hbk) 9789048133444 (ebk)
• Gale, T., Hattam, R., Comber, B., Tranter, D., Bills, D., Sellar, S. & Parker, S. (2010) Interventions early in school as a
means to improve higher education outcomes for disadvantaged (particularly low SES) students. Adelaide: National
Centre Student Equity in Higher Education. 208 pp. (paperback), ISBN: 978-0-980798-30-2.
• Sellar, S. & Gale, T. (2011) Mobility, aspiration, voice: A new structure of feeling for student equity in higher education.
Special Issue: “New capacities for student equity and widening participation in higher education”. Critical Studies in
Education, 52(2), pp. 115-134.
• Sellar, S., Gale, T. & Parker, S. (2011) Appreciating aspirations in Australian higher education. Special Issue:
“Globalisation and student equity in higher education”. Cambridge Journal of Education, 41(1), pp. 37-52.
• Gale, T. (2011) Student equity’s starring role in Australian higher education: Not yet centre field. Special Issue:
“Confronting perceptions of student equity in higher education”. Australian Educational Researcher, 38(1), pp. 5-23.
• Gale, T. (2011) Expansion and equity in Australian higher education: Three propositions for new relations. Discourse:
Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32(5), pp. 669-685.
• Gale, T. & Tranter, D. (2011) Social justice in Australian higher education policy: An historical and conceptual account of
student participation. Critical Studies in Education, 52(1), pp. 29-46.
• Mills, C. & Gale, T. (2011) Re-asserting the place of context in explaining student (under) achievement. British Journal
of Sociology of Education, 32(2), pp. 239-256.
• Gale, T. & Parker, S. (2011) Student Transition into Higher Education. Good Practice Report. Canberra: Australian
Learning and Teaching Council.
• Gale, T. & Tranter, D. (2012) ‘Social inclusion as a matter of policy: Australian higher education for the masses’ in T. Basit
& S. Tomlinson (eds) Social Inclusion and Higher Education. Bristol, UK: Policy Press, pp. 149-169.
• Sellar, S. & Gale, T. (2012) ‘Aspiration and education: Toward new terms of engagement for marginalised students’ in B.
McMahon & J. Portelli (eds) Student Engagement in Urban Schools: Beyond Neoliberal Discourses. North Carolina, USA:
Information Age Publishers, pp. 91-109.