This essay will reflect upon the impact of new technologies on the communication process and how that process is a reflection of the technologies used in its creation, transmission, exchange and absorption (participation). In particular, we will address the videos distributed via Internet by video activists and NGOs.
Video streaming on the web as empowerment for video activist
1. Video streaming on the web as
empowerment for video activist
Joana Andrade Ramalho Pinto
Reg No 00093170E
Final Essay
Tutor: Andy Cameron
MA Hypermedia Studies
University of Westminster
Fall 2001
2. 2
Content
Introduction 3
New media audience and streaming narrative 5
Moving from broadcast to streaming 8
Streaming technologies 9
Alternative media 12
Brazil Network 15
Conclusion 17
Bibliography 18
3. 3
Video streaming on the web as empowerment for video activist
Introduction
"In countries like Brazil, where an under-represented majority struggles to have
its voice heard, video activism has been fundamental in raising awareness about
many social problems." (Simões in Media Guardian 2001)
This essay will reflect upon the impact of new technologies on the
communication process and how that process is a reflection of the technologies
used in its creation, transmission, exchange and absorption (participation). In
particular, we will address the videos distributed via Internet by video activists
and NGOs.
The NGO Brazil Network is forging a way to publish their activist work through
the Internet, which is to denounce the unjust lives of different repressed
segments of Brazilian society. With a minimal technology system (a laptop
connected to the Internet) they are now uploading a video archive based on
streaming media technology.
What is new and exciting about streaming media is precisely that it is not
television or radio on a computer. Streaming is a way of combining; connecting
and condensing a variety of already established communication systems (such
as live transmissions, radio and video) with new technology (computer and
telecommunications network systems). This combination through new
technological objects (interfaces, software applications, streaming media
products) can create new social contexts that affect a given culture's sensory
experience of media.
History has shown that the introduction of new technologies provides an
opportunity for media producers to re-examine the content and form of the
message they wish to communicate. There is a sense in which the new can
‘revolutionise’ and innovate, creating a new aesthetic and new narrative forms.
4. 4
The Internet has provided a unique moment for individuals separated by
geography, culture and social position to share information with each other.
Through its non-centralised democratic structure, the Internet encourages
individual self-expression, allowing ‘everyone’ to have an opportunity to put
forward their own point of view. This culture of self-expression may be referred to
as a DIY-culture, where everyone has an opportunity to communicate through
the new channels of communication, which are no longer limited to a special few,
but are now open to anyone with a computer and a modem to show their own
work.
Streaming media pushes this process one step further, providing individuals with
the tools of the professional media communicator to transmit their message.
Here the audience is no longer a passive mass, but is a participating group of
individuals each with the potential to not only enter into the discussion with words
and static images, but with audio and video footage.
“With the advent of the Net, this limited vision of media freedom is becoming an
anachronism. For the first time, ordinary people can be producers as well as
consumers of information. Marx's 'positive' concept of media freedom is now
pragmatic politics. Instead of making media for them, the state can help people
to make their own media. For instance, public service broadcasters can nurture
network communities and telecoms regulators can encourage infrastructure
investment.” (Barbrook 2000)
This paper will examine the differences between two models of communication
in our contemporary society: the already-established mass media and the new
media based on innovative technologies, considering their narratives and their
relationship to specific audiences. The essay will describe the streaming
technologies, as well as examine how those technologies impact upon the
message. Finally, the paper will present examples of alternative media producers
(activists), which are using streaming video to distribute their work and overcome
the broadcast corporation hegemony within the media.
5. 5
New media audience and streaming narrative
“Where the real world changes into simple images, the simple images become real beings
and effective motivations of hypnotic behaviour. The spectacle, as a tendency to make
one see the world by means of various specialized mediations (it can no longer be grasped
directly), naturally finds vision to be the privileged human sense which the sense of touch
was for other epochs; “(Debord 1967; 18)
The audience of New Media is different from the Mass Media. In a new media
organisation, the audience experience not only a sense of vision, but also
recuperates the “sense of touch”, where interactivity and participation of the
audience is fundamental for its existence. There is no more a collective mind as
in mass media, but a segmented and individualist society, the result of new
communication technologies focuses on diversification and specialised
information. Thus, the “audience becomes increasingly segmented by ideologies,
values, tastes and lifestyles.” (Castells 2000; 368)
The new technologies are changing the narrative; they are forcing the
communicators to capture, edit and present their works in different ways. As
Eisenstein noted during his experiments with montage in the early days of
moving picture, he ‘felt that a new society meant a new kind of vision; that the
way that people saw things must be altered; that it was insufficient to put new
material before old eyes.’ (Rush 1999) So, this new technology provides an
opportunity to develop a new media language, technique, and aesthetic where
the content is not dependent on the technological form, but is in fact the
embodiment of these new technologies.
Cable television, sometimes referred to as Community Television, was once
announced as the technology that would revitalise democratic communication. It
was seen as a means of providing diversity among the electronic media,
enabling two-way communication with a participatory audience. It was envisioned
as a form for creating an open space for local communities and alternative media
producers. Nowadays, only few stations works as alternative communities, which
are based in a one-to-many communication system more like radio. In fact, cable
television is now considered as a ‘narrowcasting’ system, providing specialised
channels for particular demographic audience profiles produced by traditional
media corporations and financed by advertising revenue. The major media
6. 6
corporations have swallowed up the idealistic goal of a participatory
communications channel. The hope of two-way communication has probably
vanished, however it has created some new ‘media’ players (CNN, MTV, etc.),
providing opportunities for challenging, although in a limited way, the hegemony
of the existing media giants. This has created a potential amongst the audience
to explore different media messages, and indeed question existing media points
of view.
“In sum, the new media determine a segmented, differentiated audience that,
although massive in terms of numbers, is no longer a mass audience in terms of
simultaneity and uniformity of the messages it receives. The new media are no
longer mass media in the traditional sense of sending a limited number of
messages to a homogeneous mass audience. Because of the multiplicity of
messages and sources, the audience itself becomes more selective. The
targeted audience tends to choose its messages, so deepening its
segmentation, enhancing the individual relationship between senders and
receivers. “ (Sabbah in Castells 2000; 368)
This selective approach to information by the television audience has leaded the
media producers to diversify the subjects and the narratives of the programs they
produce. Where previously the programmes used established narrative formulas
now there is greater change, introducing more interactive formats. “The key
issue is that while mass media are a one-way communication system, the actual
process of communication is not, but depends on the interaction between the
sender and the receiver in the interpretation of the message.” (Castells 2000;
363)
But it was not only cable TV that provides the capacity to choose, VCRs (video
cassette recorders) and domestic video camera have provided an opportunity for
diversification of television offerings, amplifying alternative programming
opportunities and enabling the audience to re-schedule and record the
transmitted signal. With the reduction in prices of video cameras, video
technology is now within the reach of everyday consumers, thus reinforcing the
DIY media approach. “People started to tape their own events, from vacation to
family celebrations, thus producing their own images beyond the photo album.
For all the limits of self-production of images, is actually modified the one-way
flow of images and reintegrated life experience and the screen. In many
7. 7
countries, from Andalusia to Southern India, local community video technology
allowed for the blossoming of rudimentary local broadcasting which mixed
diffusion of video films with local events and announcements, often on the
fringes of communications regulations.”(Castells 2000; 366)
The emergence of relatively inexpensive and easy to use video capturing
devices has allowed video markers to question the narrative structure and
aesthetic look of video. Through ‘innocent’ eyes, individuals who are not familiar
with the production values and formulas of the media moguls, new narrative
forms are possible. However, until the introduction of media streaming, although
it was relatively easy to make a video, it was impossible for that video to be
transmitted on a global scale.
There is a sense in which the interactive, non-linear nature of the Internet has
also changed the form and structure of these media it transmits. It is possible
that the traditional sense of narrative is disappearing, because many of these
technological tools enable a fragmented non-linear narrative to be constructed.
What in fact is being realised is that the narrative tradition is being re-invented on
the Net, in different ways, not only storytelling, but introducing again the notion of
plot. Not plot in the simple sense of structuring narrative in order to keep your
attention; but plot in relation to space, the actual selection of a journey through a
collection of media fragments interspaced across the Internet. Here, narrative is
defined as the links between the unfolding temporality of components individually
linked together by Internet users.
Like online documentation, streaming media combines a Web-based content
management application with a rich array of media elements. This juxtaposition
offers many advantages over traditional broadcasting. It creates entirely new
ways of using and watching video. Breaking video down into short segments,
which can be searched and randomly accessed, enabling customisation,
sharing, and ‘bookmarking’ of content by the ‘viewer’ rather than just the
‘producer’ of the message.
One of the most important questions, when considering the future of streaming
media, will be how the contexts of developing technologies can be assessed
(technological, commercial, social), and what range of mobility do those contexts
offer for instances of use critical and appropriation.
8. 8
Moving from broadcast to streaming
The momentous is happening. We are at the first spark, the first dawn, of what is
a fusion between the Internet and Broadcast Media. But we have in a sense,
very little understanding of what the implications are, what it actually means.
The flexibility that streaming media offers is one of the principle advantages it
has over television broadcasts. Thus it is as pertinent for cultural activists and
artists to consider how these new technologies may significantly change what is
meant by performance, art or theatre. This capacity of a technology to extend
outside itself is certainly not specific just to Web technology (we already have
CD-ROM, video, radio, as precedents), but it is indicative of an important phase
in developing media technology.
In November 2000 an article in InternetNews by John Townley, reported that in a
study conducted by MeasureCast, Inc./Harris Interactive, 67 percent of the online
population was familiar with streaming media.
T.W. Rabbit of PCWORLD reported in October 2000 that a study conducted by the
National Association of Broadcasters revealed that "…in the average American home
(without a broadband Internet connection), a resident typically spends 33 percent of his or
her "media time" with television, followed by radio at 28 percent; the Internet trails at 11
percent. But in a home with broadband access, the study finds, a person typically spends
21 percent of her or his "media time" online, close to the 24 percent of the time spent
watching television and 21 percent listening to radio." (Dorey)
This comparison indicates that as Internet users with broadband connections
increase, less time will be spent in front of the television and more time on the
Internet. The difference between Internet media streaming and television
broadcasting is that eventually there will be unlimited choice. At the same time,
the broadcast industry will be going all-digital. Digital broadcasting and high-
definition television are just around the corner. Television programs will be able
to carry additional text and graphics encoded within their digital signals.
The development of peer-to-peer (P2P) computing system, will allow direct
exchanging information (files) between computers. Based on a decentralised
architectural system its simplistic form it is usually structured as one-to-one
9. 9
communication. Because the heavy data transfers are at the users edge
(decentralised) of the network, the congestion is minimized reducing the load on
the servers. With lowered congestion and automatic organization, scalability
becomes less complicated and highly facilitated by the architecture, performing
fast transfer of large data. For media industry this will represent the in between
Internet and TV Broadcasting.
However digital television will never be the same as the Internet. The advantage
of the Internet, of course, is that it's worldwide, and so has the potential to
become a global broadcasting medium. And since it's interactive, it can become
a global multi-casting system. A user will be able to communicate with people all
over the world, either on a one-to-one basis or with a whole group of people
spread around the globe.
Streaming technologies
Advances in computing and networking technology means that it is now feasible
to deliver sound and video across the Internet. Streaming is the process of
sending these media over a network for viewing in real time. The source material
can originate from a live source, such as a video camera, a webcast, an audio
feed from a radio station, or the source can be a pre-edited movie stored on the
network server. The different between streaming media and traditional media
over the Internet, is that with streaming media, the whole file does not need to be
downloaded before it begins to play. Hence, the Internet user can begin to listen
to or watch the video/audio file whilst that file is still being transmitted.
Given a good a network connection streaming video works well, enabling video
to be received in almost real time, however there are still many users with old
computers and slow network connections, who can not appreciate this
experience, and hence care must to be taken to ensure that streaming
technology is not used inappropriately for a particular target audience.
Indeed even with a good network connection there may still exist some
problems. Firstly, there is the nature of the Internet and its use of IP means that
a broadcast is competing with other data transmissions, and hence there is no
way of guaranteeing sufficient bandwidth to ensure an uninterrupted broadcast.
10. 10
Servers streaming content to diverse groups of clients distributed across the
Internet are ineffective in terms of both server load and network congestion.
Also, users require particular software players to receive the streaming signals,
and many users have difficulty in setting up their machines with these players.
When a user is streaming a completed movie stored on a hard disk (video-on-
demand streaming), the audience has random access to the entire stream and
can jump anywhere within it. The on-demand media content is controlled by the
user (client), the user can select a pre-recorded stream and also freely choose
when to view it. The file will be stored on the user’s computer in full, which
means no loss of information. After downloading the user can control the video
stream - pausing, jumping ahead/back, restarting, etc – just as with a traditional
video recorder. The ‘on-demand’ technique diverges from the broadcast system
where content is controlled and scheduled by the server. Here, content is only
made available for viewing at selected times. The viewer can only watch the
stream as it is being transmitted without any control over it, just as with a
television or radio broadcasts. Broadcast content can be scheduled to come
from an archived file or can be live and information can be lost during the
streaming, depending on the quality of the connection.
This technology can use a unicast stream, a single link from the video server
down to the user, permitting access to either on-demand or broadcast content. A
single video server is able to handle many simultaneous unicast links to different
users accessing the same or different content but if the server has many
accesses at the same time it cause network congestion. Unicast is the
predominant form of streaming for global access.
However there is an alternative technology, multicast. Here, live or stored audio
and video is distributed to large audiences with minimum network congestion
because of multicast networking technology. Multicast allows a single media
stream to be played simultaneously by multiple users, drastically reducing
bandwidth use. However, multicast only offers the user the opportunity to join a
live or scheduled broadcast. The user has no control over the stream and cannot
stop or restart the transmission. With true live events, the stream functions more
or less as the web version of a TV or radio broadcast; users can turn it on or off
and switch to another channel.
11. 11
Broadcast streaming, uses multicast technology, allowing users to maintain
control over the distribution and copyright of their media. Anyone using ‘on-
demand’ can download a movie, alter it, and redistribute it themselves, but it’s
much harder to redistribute the contents of a broadcast stream. When the
audience saves the streaming movie, all the user is saving is the URL of the
stream and some user settings. The actual data, the movie, is never copied.
These two alternative technologies are creating a ‘war’, similar to that of the two
competing browsers, Netscape and Explorer. And like browsers, the players are
not content just to be tools, they want to be gateways, directing the user to actual
content. The three most popular streaming players, which are all free online, are
RealNetworks' RealPlayer, Apple's QuickTime or Microsoft's Media Player.
Patricia Jacobus of CNET wrote in January that according to a Jupiter Media Metrix
report, RealNetworks had maintained an edge over rival Microsoft in media streaming
technology. "In November 2000, about 28 percent of consumers who use computers in
U.S. homes chose RealNetworks' RealPlayer to watch videos or listen to music online.
That same month, 22 percent used Microsoft's Windows Media Player 6 or 7. Apple's
QuickTime was used by 4 percent," she reported.
Although these technologies have made huge leaps forward in providing access
to video and audio files, it is important to note that these technologies are also
changing the aesthetic concept of the media they are communicating.
“The tactical media can only be fully effective if it is also aesthetically-formally-
sensorially tactical as well. This means that, alongside an investigation into
creating new distribution or broadcasting models, there must also be a
concurrent investigation into the potential challenges, critiques, and experiments
which are embodied and materialized in a given media”. (Thacker 1999)
Content producers need to be aware of the tremendous compression ratios that
are common in this field. Part of visual information is lost and picture sizes have
to be small. Limiting camera movement as well as good lighting, simple
backgrounds and close ups of subject material are all important considerations
during the capturing of video. It is these present technical limitations, which are
causing video makers to create new aesthetic styles.
12. 12
Without entering too much into these discussions concerning the technology and
how it is creating a new aesthetic, this paper will focus on who is using streaming
media, how they are using it and why.
Alternative media
Until recently, the centralisation of media technologies in public and private
commercial systems has made large-scale production projects by marginalized
political groups infeasible. Academics and activists alike have overlooked the
efforts of progressive organisations to utilize the television medium for the
production and distribution of radical media. Groups who want to challenge
existing power structures, empower diverse communities and classes, and
enable communities to speak to each other are faced with a lack of theoretical
models and practical information regarding the use of television.
“During the Fordist epoch, the Left almost forgot this libertarian definition of free
speech. For technical and economic reasons, ordinary people appeared to be
incapable of making their own media. Instead, the Left supported public service
broadcasting so its leaders could gain access to the airwaves. Free speech was
restricted to elected politicians.” (Barbrook 2000)
But the larger the audience, the more powerful are the decision-makers in the
media organisations and the less effective are the mechanisms for participation.
Participatory democracy is virtually impossible in a medium where a small
number of owners and editors produce a product for a much larger audience.
“The very scale of the media limits opportunities for participation and increases
the power of key figures. The way in which this power is used depends on the
relation of the media to the most powerful groups in society. In liberal
democracies, governments and corporations, and media corporations in
particular, exercise the greatest power over the media. The large scale of the
mass media is what makes it possible for this power to be exercised so
effectively” (Martin 1998).
The aim should be to provide an alternative to the mass media by establishing a
communication system that is more participatory. Social and cultural
13. 13
information for marginal groups can then exploit the possibilities of digital
narrow-casting models to send out their messages, potentially world wide.
Grassroots initiatives have fragmented into islands of NGO-nets while, at
same time, becoming increasingly professional in orientation and visible in
the media. The true DIY style of this movement, enables alternative outlets to be
created, where video activists, Internet hackers, radio pirates, digital
photographers and text reporters can create forums for the ignored and the
marginalised.
Undercurrents is an English video activist organisation aimed at empowering
individuals to report the news you don't see on the news. The group has noted
that for news storied to be ‘acceptable’, they must not only adhere to the
‘production values’ (technical and journalistic) of the traditional media, but must
also be innovative so as to capture the interest of the wider public.
The group was formed in London in1993, during the protests against the building
of the M11 motorway link. They began by producing short alternative news video
programmes using domestic Hi8 video cameras, and selling the video tapes to
schools and interested parties all over the World. Since then, the group has seen
the importance of educating video markers so as to more effectively
communicate their alternative news. Paul O’Connor one member of the
Undercurrents, sums up to Media Guardian the work of the group to date, “within
that time we have trained hundreds of environmental and social justice
campaigners to use the camcorder as a tool for change. From Belfast to
Brighton, video activists are now editing on laptops and producing their own
news.”
Within the last twelve months, the Undercurrents team has been preparing for
the wider introduction of broadband technology allowing Internet users to access
video at a reasonable cost and quality. They are setting up beyondtv.org as a
touring/internet hosting area for activists' films. The latest in alternative news can
be viewed or downloaded for free from their website. They also produce Internet
and video training programs, which have created many new media activists that,
need an outlet for their campaign work. Taking the idea that the Internet can
provide this at a very low cost, it is possible to educate and empower groups by
working with them as partners to give them skills to express themselves by
14. 14
creative use of new technology. “Beyondtv.org will allow you to post text, images
and details of audio reports and video up to the Website. If you have nowhere to
host your audio and video - we'll help you find somewhere. The most important
difference is, we'll be able to offer partners training and technical support” says
O’Connor. “With the help of our training partners, we help people to shoot and
edit video and put this on the web. We also train groups and individuals how to
create effective campaign web sites.” (O’Connor 2000)
Originally Undercurrents set up to empower the 17 million people who send their
donation fees each month to Greenpeace or WWF or any large NGO to take
action themselves rather than paying others to take action on their behalf. Paul
O’Connor continues by saying “The videos we distribute show a wide cross
section of people involved in stopping destructive practises carried out by
governments, industries, and individuals. We focus on the positive side such as
empowerment, education, results, and actions of individuals in each video. Our
audience has now expanded to schools, universities, campaigners worldwide,
journalists, as well as the general audience through terrestrial TV and the
Internet worldwide. But I think that a focused smaller audience has more impact
and potential that any mass audience.” (Alt-World 2001)
O’ Connor notes that ”the greatest power of all these corporations lies in the fact
that they can produce a movie and distribute it through their own cinema chain,
promote it through their own TV networks, play the soundtrack on their own radio
stations and sell merchandising spin offs at their own amusement parks. A movie
becomes a book, a CD, then a TV series, a Broadway musical, a video game,
and even an amusement ride.” (Alt-World 2001)
It has taken a decade for broadcasters to recognise the direct-action movement
as an important political force. Grassroots reporting is perhaps finally gaining
acceptance within the mainstream. In August 2001, Channel 4 broadcasted the
pilot of a unique programme, which according to its producers offered "a radical
new approach to current affairs and politics inspired by video activists". Alt-World
featured stories by video activists in Brazil, Australia, the United States, Serbia
and Britain.
15. 15
Brazil Network
Following the initiatives of Undercurrents and the production process based upon
the DIY-culture, many other projects and groups have been pushing streaming
video technology as a means of communicating their believes. One such
example is Brazil Network. Brazil Network is a Non-Governmental Organization
based in London, which was established in the early 1990s. It’s a group of
members and volunteers coordinated by the documentary film-maker/director
Nina Simões.
Following the collapse of the military regime in 1985 and instigation of a new
Constitution, Brazil became a democratic country. This transition has lead to a
number of social changes and challenges. These changes are reflected in many
different ways, from the thousands of landless peasants (MST) who demand
fertile land, which are unused yet owned by a small proportion of the population.
Rappers in shantytowns who are forging a new black consciousness though their
militant music. Native Indians, the first dwellers of Brazilian lands, who are
demanding back their ancestral land, and fighting for their right to preserve their
culture inheritance and not become absorbed into a globalised culture. Left-wing
activists from the Workers' Party (Partido dos Trabalhadores - PT) who have
won local elections and are promoting new forms of participatory politics.
Environmentalists who are campaigning - and taking direct action - against
genetically modified crops.
“This is the 'other Brazil' that is fighting to create a vibrant, ethnically and
culturally diverse, egalitarian society. By creating a network of information,
contacts and activities, we aim both to make these experiences more widely
understood and to build a common movement in which people around the world
can learn from, and support, each other. “ (Simões 2001)
Nina Simões worked as a video activist at Undercurrants shooting protests of
MST the landless peasants movement in Brazil. Lately made a new video ‘The
other 500 years of Brazil’, which was shot in April 2000 in Cabrália, in South of
Bahia, during the demonstrations against the so called ‘Discovery’ of Brazil. Due
to a lack of funding the project is still unfinished, but today, the internet offers a
chance for alternative projects like this one, to be presented to a wider audience,
according to Nina: “avoiding the narrow mindedness of the commissioning
16. 16
editors which are censoring and manipulating a closer look into the problems of
our world”. The convergence of new technologies is giving new possibilities to
reveal stories not covered by the broadcast media.
Brazil Network is now launching a web page with a video archive that consists on
giving a voice and showing the faces of the unheard people living in remote
areas of Brazil. “Now they have a chance to denounce the problems surrounding
their reality and show how they are getting organized to defend their rights”
(Simões 2001). The video archive will include small statements from
representatives of different native indian tribes, scenes from the fight between
the indians and the police during the celebration in Cabrália, some footage
presenting the indian culture and also about the march of the MST across the
country demanding land to work.
Technology to enabling these issues to be discussed via the Internet through on-
demand streaming media allied with a complementary text providing context
insight into the wider political issues. On-demand streaming is been used to
guarantee the quality of the audio and video images, making it possible to have
larger file sizes with a slow connection speed. This format also enables viewers
to randomly interact with the videos, permitting them to download the files and
swap them with other users over the Internet. The production of the videos is
simple and allows information to be easily and quickly updated, this is very
important considering that Brazil Network only has a laptop to support this
innovative technological venture.
The practice of DIY-culture is perhaps the only real solution for smalls NGOs
such as Brazil Network, where resources are at a minimum, and work is
conducted by volunteers. The Brazil Network survives from donations of its
members; the creation of the video archive is a means of communicating the
objectives of the group and to encourage other individuals to invest in the
project.
17. 17
Conclusion
New technology in the form of streaming media is still in its infancy, in terms of
actual technology and use of that technology as an interactive media. Yet it has,
and is proving to be a vehicle for video directors to communicate about issues,
which is outside of the mass media agenda. This is not to say however that
traditional media moguls are not using this technology, for they are; yet they are
using it in much the same way that they use traditional media. However, it is
perhaps in the hands of individuals who do not have direct access to the
traditional media, that the most interesting work is being created. It is interesting
to note that with a simple technological system based on a computer, a modem
and a camcorder, an individual can create a ‘news channel’ and disseminate that
information to a global audience.
Marginal groups in culture and society are generally not well equipped to
deal with this new situation and they are certainly no matches for the highly
professional commercial media conglomerates. But they are finding the
way around believing that Internet provides a global platform for ‘free speech’,
empower all individuals with an opportunity to change the one-way
communication process.
There is a sense in which this ‘new’ media is still looking for an aesthetic style
and a narrative form, yet in searching for this form and style it is not only creating
itself; but it is challenging the hegemony of traditional media corporations.
18. 18
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