UWB Technology for Enhanced Indoor and Outdoor Positioning in Physiological M...
Unit 4
1. AIDS: A Four Letter Word
Unit 4
Viruses, Bacteria,
and Immunology
2. Bacteria
Unicellular prokaryotes (lack a nucleus or other
membrane-bound organelles)
Contain a cell wall
Bacteria are separated into two kingdoms
– Eubacteria
– Archaebacteria
3. Section 18-3
Concept Map
are characterized by
such as
and differing which place them in
which coincides withwhich coincides with
which place them in which is subdivided into
Living
Things
Kingdom
Eubacteria
Kingdom
Archaebacteria
Eukaryotic
cellsProkaryotic cells
Important
characteristics
Cell wall
structures
Domain
Eukarya
Domain
Bacteria
Domain
Archaea
Kingdom
Plantae
Kingdom
Protista
Kingdom
Fungi
Kingdom
Animalia
4. DOMAIN
KINGDOM
CELL TYPE
CELL
STRUCTURES
NUMBER OF
CELLS
MODE OF
NUTRITION
EXAMPLES
Bacteria
Eubacteria
Prokaryote
Cell walls with
peptidoglycan
Unicellular
Autotroph or
heterotroph
Streptococcus,
Escherichia coli
Archaea
Archaebacteria
Prokaryote
Cell walls
without
peptidoglycan
Unicellular
Autotroph or
heterotroph
Methanogens,
halophiles
Protista
Eukaryote
Cell walls of
cellulose in
some; some
have
chloroplasts
Most unicellular;
some colonial;
some
multicellular
Autotroph or
heterotroph
Amoeba,
Paramecium,
slime molds,
giant kelp
Fungi
Eukaryote
Cell walls of
chitin
Most
multicellular;
some
unicellular
Heterotroph
Mushrooms,
yeasts
Plantae
Eukaryote
Cell walls of
cellulose;
chloroplasts
Multicellular
Autotroph
Mosses, ferns,
flowering
plants
Animalia
Eukaryote
No cell walls or
chloroplasts
Multicellular
Heterotroph
Sponges,
worms,
insects, fishes,
mammals
Eukarya
Classification of Living Things
Section 18-3
Figure 18-12 Key Characteristics of
Kingdoms and Domains
5. Section 19-1
Concept Map
are classified into the kingdoms of
live in harsh
environments such as
include a variety of
lifestyles such as
Bacteria
Eubacteria Archaebacteria
Infecting large
organisms
Thick mudLiving in soil
Animal
digestive
tracts
Salty lakes Hot springs
6. Eubacteria vs. Archaebacteria
Eubacteria
– Exist almost everywhere (fresh water, salt water,
land, humans)
– Have cell walls made of peptidoglycan (a
carbohydrate)
Archaebacteria
– Many live in extremely harsh environments
– Have cell walls that lack peptidoglycan
– May be the ancestors of eukaryotes
10. These images were taken from:
www.uic.edu/classes/
bios/bios100/labs/celllab.htm,
www.dmu.edu/
microbiology/bacteria.htm
Shapes of Bacteria
3. Spirilla (Spiral and corkscrew-shaped)
11. Metabolism
Energy
Heterotrophs – obtain energy from organic molecules
(eat)
Autotrophs – make their own food from inorganic
molecules
– Photoautotroph – uses the sun to make organic compounds
– Chemoautotrophs – uses the energy from chemical reactions
to make organic compounds
Saprophytic – live of dead or decaying organic matter
– decomposers
12. Metabolism
Respiration
Obligate aerobes – organisms that require a
constant supply of oxygen
Obligate anaerobes – organisms that do NOT
require oxygen
Facultative anaerobes – organisms that can
survive with or without oxygen
13. The following image was taken
from: fig.cox.miami.edu/.../
150/mitosis/fission.jpg
Growth and Reproduction
1. Binary fission
– DNA replicates and bacterium divides in half;
produces two identical daughter cells
- asexual reproduction
14. This following image was taken
from:
fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/
150/gene/sf9x3box.jpg
Growth and Reproduction
2. Conjugation
– The exchange of genetic information through a
hollow bridge
– Sexual reproduction
16. This image was taken from:
fruit.naro.affrc.go.jp/.
../micro/AJ007.gif
Growth and Reproduction
3. Spore formation
– The formation of spores during harsh conditions
– Remain dormant until conditions are better
17. The Importance of Bacteria
Bacteria act as decomposers
– by breaking down dead organic matter into
important materials that are released into the soil
Bacteria act as nitrogen fixers
– Rhizobium bacteria convert nitrogen gas into a form
plants can use (nitrogen cycle)
18. The Importance of Bacteria Cont.
Human uses of bacteria . . .
– Food and beverage production
Canning (temperature and pressure)
– Oil spill clean up
– Remove waste products and poisons from water
– Mine minerals from the ground
19. Viruses
Viruses are made of . . .
– Non-cellular particle (no organelles)
– Genetic material (DNA or RNA)
– Protein (outer coat or capsid)
– Example - bacteriophage
21. Viral Infections
A virus binds to specific proteins on the host
cell’s surface
Two types of viral infections
– Lytic infection
– Lysogenic infection
22. Lytic Infection vs. Lysogenic Infection
Lytic Infection
A virus enters the cell, makes copies of itself,
and causes the cell to burst
Lysogenic Infection
A virus integrates its DNA into the DNA of the
host cell
The viral DNA replicates with the host cell’s
DNA
25. Disease
Disease – any change, other than injury, that
disrupts the normal functions of the body
Symptoms – any change in the body as a
result of disease
Pathogen – a disease-causing agent
– Examples: bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoans
Germ theory of disease – infectious diseases
are caused by microorganisms, or germs
26. The pathogen
should always be
found in the body
of a sick
organism and
should not be
found in a
healthy one.
The pathogen
must be
isolated and
grown in the
laboratory in
a pure
culture.
When purified
pathogens are
placed in a
new host, they
should cause
the same
disease that
infected the
host.
The very same
pathogen should
be reisolated
from the second
host. And it
should be the
same as the
original
pathogen.
No pathogen Suspected
pathogen Suspected pathogen
Injection of
organisms from
pure culture
Pathogen
Dead mouse Dead mouse
Dead mouse
Healthy mouse
Healthy mouse
Suspected
pathogen grown
in pure culture.
Section 40-1
Koch’s Postulates: rules used to
identify the cause of a disease
27. Spread of Disease
Diseases can be spread through
– Physical contact
– Contaminated food and water
– Infected animals
28. Bacterial Disease
Some common bacterial diseases include
bacterial meningitis, lyme disease, and strep
throat
How do bacteria produce disease?
– Use cells for food (ex. Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
– Release toxins into body (ex. Streptococcus)
29. Bacterial Diseases Cont.
Vaccines can prevent bacterial diseases
– The weakened or killed pathogen is injected into the
body
Antibiotics can be used to attack and destroy
bacteria once it invades the body
– Block growth and reproduction of bacteria
– Examples – penicillin and tetracycline
30. Viral Diseases
Common viral diseases include chickenpox,
colds, flu, warts, West Nile, and AIDS
How do viruses cause disease?
– Attack and destroy certain cells
– Causes a disruption in the body’s normal equilibrium
Vaccines
Viral diseases cannot be treated by antibiotics
31. The Immune System
The primary defense against pathogens
Non-specific defense
– First line of defense – Skin, mucus, sweat, tears
Goal is to keep pathogens out of body
– Second line of defense – The inflammatory
response
Reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or
infection (pus and inflammation)
Phagocytes (WBCs) engulf the pathogens
(causing swollen lymph nodes, fever)
34. The Immune System Cont.
Specific Defense
An attack of the immune system against one
particular pathogen
Two main types of specific defenses
– Humoral Immunity
– Cell-mediated Immunity
35. Humoral Immunity
B-cells (B-lymphocytes) – made in bone
marrow
B-cells recognize antigens (a substance
recognized as foreign by the body)
B-cells develop into
– Plasma cells that release antibodies (proteins that
recognize and bind to antigens – and destroy them)
– Memory B-cells (remember the antigen and can
attack quickly the next time it invades)
38. Cell-mediated Immunity
T-cells (T lymphocytes) – made in the thymus
Killer T-cells - attack and lyse pathogens, cause
body to reject transplants
Helper T-cells - direct the immune response
Mast cells - produce histamines that cause
swelling and congestion (allergies = over active
mast cells)
39. Macrophage
T Cell
Helper
T Cell
Killer
T Cell
Infected Cell
Antigens are displayed on
surface of macrophage
T cell binds to
activated
macrophage
T cell, activated by macrophage,
becomes a helper T cell
Helper T cell activates
killer T cells and B cells
Killer T cells bind to infected cells,
disrupting their cell membranes and
destroying them
Section 40-2
Cell-mediated Immune Response
42. Types of Immunity
Inborn immunity –
– Present at birth
– Inherited characteristic
– permanent
43. Types of Immunity cont.
Active
– Natural
By infection and
production of
antibodies
Long lasting and
permanent
– Artificial
Injection of vaccines
Several years to
permanent
Passive
– Natural
Transfer of
antibodies from
mom to infant
6 months – 1 year
– Artificial
Injection of serum
containing
antibodies
2 weeks – 1 month
Acquired Immunity
44. Immune System Disorders
Allergies
– Allergy-causing antigens enter the body and attach
to mast cells (the mast cells initiate the inflammatory
response)
– The mast cells release histamines which increase
the flow of blood and fluids to surrounding area and
increase mucus production
45. Immune System Disorders Cont.
Autoimmune diseases
– when the body attacks its own cells
– Ex. Type I diabetes, multiple sclerosis (MS), and
rheumatoid arthritis
46. Immune System Disorders Cont.
Immunodeficiency Disease
– Ex. AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
AIDS
– Caused by a virus called HIV (human
immunodeficiency virus)
– HIV is a retrovirus (carries its genetic information on
RNA, not DNA)
– Attacks helper T-cells
47. AIDS
Modes of Transmission
– Sexual intercourse with a person with HIV
– Sharing of needles in IV drug use with an HIV
infected person
– Blood transfusions that contain HIV
– Mother to newborn - during birth or breast feeding
48. AIDS Cont.
Detection of Virus
– Antibody production by immune system
Tests do not look for the virus but antibodies
– Monitor Helper T-cell numbers (detects start of AIDS)
Effects of Virus
– Destroys body’s ability to fight of disease
Helper T-cells cannot coordinate B-cells and T-cells to fight
disease
Antibody production is greatly reduced
Pathogens go unrecognized
– Opportunistic diseases weaken or kill person
Rare types of cancers and fungal infections
49. AIDS Cont.
Treatment / Prevention
– No cure or vaccine
– Drugs can slow the grow of the virus - slowing
onset of AIDS
– Avoid exposure to HIV
51. NumberofCases
Female
Male
AIDS in 13- to 19 -Year-Olds, by Sex and Year of
Report, through December 2001, United States
N= 4,428
34 35 53
77
126136
181
162 152
578
412
392 398
371
298 311
1993 definition change
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year of Report
Before
1985
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
340
372
2000 2001
NumberofCases
NumberofCases
Female
Male
AIDS in 13- to 19 -Year-Olds, by Sex and Year of
Report, through December 2001, United States
N= 4,428
34 35 53
77
126136
181
162 152
578
412
392 398
371
298 311
1993 definition change
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year of Report
Before
1985
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
340
372
2000 2001
NumberofCases
Female
Male
AIDS in 13- to 19 -Year-Olds, by Sex and Year of
Report, through December 2001, United States
N= 4,428
34 35 53
77
126136
181
162 152
578
412
392 398
371
298 311
1993 definition change
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year of Report
Before
1985
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
340
372
2000 2001
NumberofCases
NumberofCases
Female
Male
AIDS in 13- to 19 -Year-Olds, by Sex and Year of
Report, through December 2001, United States
N= 4,428
34 35 53
77
126136
181
162 152
578
412
392 398
371
298 311
1993 definition change
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year of Report
Before
1985
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
340
372
2000 2001
NumberofCases
Female
Male
AIDS in 13- to 19 -Year-Olds, by Sex and Year of
Report, through December 2001, United States
N= 4,428
34 35 53
77
126136
181
162 152
578
412
392 398
371
298 311
1993 definition change
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year of Report
Before
1985
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
340
372
2000 2001
NumberofCases
NumberofCases
Female
Male
AIDS in 13- to 19 -Year-Olds, by Sex and Year of
Report, through December 2001, United States
N= 4,428
34 35 53
77
126136
181
162 152
578
412
392 398
371
298 311
1993 definition change
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year of Report
Before
1985
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
340
372
2000 2001
NumberofCases
Female
Male
AIDS in 13- to 19 -Year-Olds, by Sex and Year of
Report, through December 2001, United States
N= 4,428
34 35 53
77
126136
181
162 152
578
412
392 398
371
298 311
1993 definition change
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Year of Report
Before
1985
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
340
372
2000 2001
NumberofCases
52. AIDSin Adolescents and Adults, by Sex and Age at
Diagnosis, Reported in 2001 , United States
13-19 years
N= 372 N= 1,461
20-24 years
Male Female
59%
41%
N= 40,271
≥25 years
75%
25%
52%
48%
AIDSin Adolescents and Adults, by Sex and Age at
Diagnosis, Reported in 2001 , United States
13-19 years
N= 372 N= 1,461
20-24 years
Male Female
59%
41%
N= 40,271
≥25 years
75%
25%
52%
48%
53. Required
Pediatric only
HIV Infection* and AIDSin 13- to 19-Year-Olds
Reported in 2001
0
HIV AIDS
NJ
DE
MD
DC
CT
RI
MA
N= 1166 N= 372
1
0
1
3
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
1
3
5
2
1
0
4
3
2
3
7
12
3
2
6
0
0
5
9
13
0
11
2
4
1
2
7
11
0
1
0
1
12
17
11
5
15
10
33
22
11
40
27
54
27
1
2
0
200
22
40
27
36
8
1
4
3
6
205
9
4
3
26
14
16
10
12
270 119
53
2
11
Guam
U.S. Pacific Islands
U.S. Virgin Islands
Puerto Rico
* For areas with confidential HIV infection surveillance. Includes 24 persons who were residents of areas without HIV infection
surveillance but who were reported by areas with HIV infection surveillance and 5 persons with an unknown state of residence.
** HIV cases reported by patient name
Confidential
HIV Reporting**
Required
Pediatric only
HIV Infection* and AIDSin 13- to 19-Year-Olds
Reported in 2001
0
HIV AIDS
NJ
DE
MD
DC
CT
RI
MA
N= 1166 N= 372
1
0
1
3
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
1
3
5
2
1
0
4
3
2
3
7
12
3
2
6
0
0
5
9
13
0
11
2
4
1
2
7
11
0
1
0
1
12
17
11
5
15
10
33
22
11
40
27
54
27
1
2
0
200
22
40
27
36
8
1
4
3
6
205
9
4
3
26
14
16
10
12
270 119
53
2
11
Guam
U.S. Pacific Islands
U.S. Virgin Islands
Puerto Rico
* For areas with confidential HIV infection surveillance. Includes 24 persons who were residents of areas without HIV infection
surveillance but who were reported by areas with HIV infection surveillance and 5 persons with an unknown state of residence.
** HIV cases reported by patient name
Confidential
HIV Reporting**