4. Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology 9
Background to war
The rise of Athens 11
Warring sides
Athens and Sparta 19
Outbreak
Fear and suspicion lead to war 28
The fighting
The first twenty years 33
Portrait of a soldier
A ship's captain at war 63
The world around war
Politics and culture 73
Portrait of a civilian
Hipparete, an Athenian citizen woman 79
How the war ended
The fall of Athens 85
Conclusion and consequences
The triumph of Sparta? 91
Further reading 93
Index 94
5. Introduction
This book gives a concise account of one of Thucydides' work is incomplete, tailing off
the key periods of Classical Greek history. literally in mid sentence, just as he is
The Peloponnesian War, which lasted from explaining what happened after an Athenian
431 to 404 BC, was a conflict between the naval victory in 411. It is likely that he had
Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta. It was either died, or at least stopped working on it
a confrontation between the leading land by 396 because he does not seem to know
power of the time, Sparta, and the leading sea about an eruption of Mount Etna on Sicily
power, Athens. In a wider sense it was also a that occurred in this year. We do not know
clash between a cautious, traditional whether he simply had not written any of
oligarchy and an ambitious, innovative the remaining books which would have
democracy. It is called the Peloponnesian War covered the period 410 to 404 (there were
because Sparta was the head of an alliance of probably to be two more), or whether he had
Greek states from the Peloponnese, the drafts or notes but no final versions.
southernmost peninsula of mainland Greece. Another Athenian historian, Xenophon,
The stories of the Peloponnesian War feature continued the story of the war from a point
some of the great personalities of the just a few months after the latest events
Classical World, including the revered recorded by Thucydides. This could imply
Athenian statesman Perikles, the bold and that Xenophon had a version of Thucydides'
resourceful Spartans Brasidas and Gylippos, work which was slightly longer than the one
the flamboyant Athenian general Alkibiades which now survives, for it seems clear that he
and the Spartan leader Lysandros, who intended his to be a continuation of
eventually achieved the decisive naval victory Thucydides', although he is less detailed and
that the Spartans needed to win the war. analytical than Thucydides. Xenophon called
The enduring fame of the Peloponnesian his work the Hellenika, meaning an account
War is due in no small way to its principal of the doings of the Hellenes, which was the
historian, Thucydides, an Athenian citizen Greeks' name for themselves. We can
who took part in some of the early stages of supplement these two main accounts from
the war as a naval commander. He was exiled the works of many later classical writers, who
from Athens in 424 and he decided to write provide biographical and historical details
a detailed account of the war because, in his not mentioned by Thucydides or Xenophon,
view, it was such an important war that it along with a small number of original
was more worthy of a written history than documents from the time of the war, mostly
any previous conflict. He carefully gathered decrees of the Athenians inscribed on stone.
as much information as possible, from Thucydides was the first writer who, in
eye-witnesses and documents, so that he explaining the origins of a war, made a clear
could offer as accurate and well considered distinction between the immediate, publicly
an analysis of events as possible. He was proclaimed reasons for the conflict and the
aware that this sort of history might not longer-term, underlying causes of tension
appeal to those who preferred a more between the two sides. This explanatory
romanticised and sensational account of the scheme is still regularly employed by modern
past, but he observed in his introduction: historians when they seek to account for the
'This is a possession for all time, rather than outbreak of more recent wars. It is a
a prize piece that is read and then forgotten.' testament to the fascination of Thucydides'
6. 8 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
subject and the quality of his work that, even regularly study the events of the
in the twenty-first century, students of Peloponnesian War for the lessons it can
history, politics and warfare in universities teach them about politics, diplomacy,
and military academies across the world strategy, tactics and the writing of history.
This helmet was worn by a Greek heavy infantry soldier, or hoplite in the sixth
century. By the start of the fifth century the city-states of Classical Greece had
already fought many small scale wars, mostly as the result of border disputes with
their neighbours.The Peloponnesian War was on a much grander scale than
anything the Greeks had previously seen. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
7. Chronology
478 Formation of the Delian League 433 Alliance of Athens and Corcyra; sea
465-64 Earthquake at Sparta; (Messenian) battle of Sybota; Athens renews
Helots revolt treaties of alliance with Leontini
462 Spartans appeal for Athenian and Rhegion
help against Messenians; Kimon's 432 Revolt of Poteidaia; Megarian
forces sent away by Spartans; decrees
reforms of Ephialtes; Athenians 431-404 Peloponnesian War
form alliance with Megara, Argos 431 Thebans attack Plataia;
and Thessaly Peloponnesians invade Attika
461 Ostracism of Kimon 430 Plague reaches Athens; Perikles'
459-54 Athenian expedition to Cyprus and expedition to Peloponnese;
Egypt Perikles is deposed as general and
459 Athenians begin building their fined; Poteidaia surrenders to
Long Walls Athenians; Phormio's expedition
457 Battles of Tanagra and Oinophyta to Naupaktos
456 Defeat of Messenians at Mt 429-27 Siege of Plataia
Ithome; Tolmides' expedition 429 Death of Perikles
around the Peloponnese 428-27 Revolt of Mytilene; ebphora tax
c. 455 Thucydides the historian born levied in Athens
454 Delian League Treasury transferred 427-24 First Athenian expedition to Sicily
to Athens (Tribute Lists begin) 425 Athenians fortify Pylos; Spartans
451 Perikles' law on Athenian captured on island of Sphakteria;
citizenship; five-year truce between Spartan peace offer refused by
Athens and Sparta; 50 year peace Athenians
treaty between Sparta and Argos 424 Athenians take Kythera and launch
c. 450 Alkibiades born raids on Lakonian coast; Boiotians
449 Peace of Kallias between Athens defeat Athenians at the battle of
and Persia Delion; Brasidas captures
447 Building of the Parthenon-begun Amphipolis; Thucydides the
446 Athenians defeated at battle of historian exiled
Koroneia and driven out of Boiotia; 423 One year armistice between Athens
Thirty Years' Peace agreed between and Sparta; revolts of Skione and
Athens and Sparta Mende; Dareios II (Ochos) becomes
c. 443 Athenians make treaties with king of Persia
Sicilian cities of Leontini and 422 Kleon and Brasidas killed at
Rhegion Amphipolis
441-140 Revolt of Samos 421 Peace of Nikias; 50-year alliance
c. 440 Hipparete born concluded between Athens and
439 Surrender of Samos Sparta
438 Dedication of the Parthenon 418 Battle of Mantinea
437/436 Foundation of Amphipolis 416 Athenians invade and capture
435 Conflict between Corinth and Melos
Corcyra over Epidamnos begins 415 Egesta appeals to Athens for help
8. 10 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
against Selinous; Second Athenian 406 Athenians defeated at Notion;
expedition to Sicily; Alkibiades Alkibiades goes into exile; Spartans
recalled defeated at battle of Arginousai;
414 Siege of Syracuse; death of trial of Athenian generals
Lamachos; Spartans send Gylippos 405 Athenians defeated at battle of
to Syracuse Aigospotamoi
413 Athenians send reinforcements to 405-404 Siege of Athens; Death of Dareios
Sicily; Spartans capture and fortify II; Artaxerxes II becomes king of
Dekeleia; defeat and surrender of Persia
Athenians in Sicily 404 Peace between Athens and Sparta;
412-11 Spartans and Persian king Athenian Long Walls partially
negotiate treaty; revolts of destroyed
Athenian allies 404-403 Rule of Thirty Tyrants in Athens
411 Oligarchic revolution installs 401 Revolt of Kyros the Younger
government of 400 in Athens; 387/6 King's Peace
army and fleet at Samos remain
loyal to democracy; Alkibiades
takes command
410 Spartans defeated at Kyzikos; [AUTHOR'S NOTE ON DATES: AH dates are
restoration of full democracy in BC. The official Athenian year, which was
Athens used by Thucydides and Xenophon as their
409 Messenians driven out of Pylos; main dating device, began and ended in
Spartans take control of Chios midsummer. As a result some of the dates in
408-407 Kyros the Younger sent to take this book are given in the form 416/15,
control of Persia's western satrapies which indicates the Athenian year that
407 Lysander takes control of Spartan began in the summer of 416 and ended in
fleet the summer of 415]
9. Background to war
The rise of Athens
The origins of the Peloponnesian War lie in This painted water jug was produced in Athens after the
the rise to power of its two protagonists, the Peloponnesian Wat: It shows a Greek hoplite (heavy
infantryman) and an archer fighting a cavalryman who is
city states of Athens and Sparta and their
dressed as a Persian.The hoplite carries a large, round
political estrangement during the middle shield on his left arm and uses a spear of between eight
part of the fifth century BC. Athens and and 10 feet in length. Aside from his essential helmet he
Sparta had been the two leading states in the wears no other armour (Ancient Art and Architecture)
alliance of Greek city-states formed to
combat the Persian king's invasion in 480.
Both could claim to have been instrumental
in saving the Greeks from conquest by the
Persians, since the Athenians had taken the
leading role in the naval victory over the
Persians at Salamis in 480, but the following
year the Spartans led the Greek army that
defeated King Xerxes' land forces and ended
the threat of Persian conquest.
After the Persians had been driven out of
mainland Greece the alliance began to break
up. The Spartan regent Pausanias led a
victorious expedition to liberate Greek cities
in the Eastern Aegean from the Persians, but
he behaved with great arrogance and his
treatment of the Eastern Greeks angered
many of them. The Spartans recalled
Pausanias and withdrew from the war
against the Persians, leaving the alliance
bereft of leadership. The Athenians were
invited by several of the leading Greek
states, particularly the cities and islands of
Ionia, to lead them in a continuation of the
war against the Persians. In 477 they created The Spartans already had their own
a new alliance to ravage the territory of the alliance known as the Peloponnesian League.
Persian king in compensation for the It was made up mainly of the small city-states
subjugation of the Ionians and the invasion in the Peloponnese, but some larger ones,
of Greece. Each of the allies agreed to such as Corinth, belonged, as did most of the
contribute men, ships or money to a cities of Boiotia, the region to the north of
common pool of resources which was Athens. They had far greater autonomy than
administered and commanded by the the members of the Delian League and they
Athenians. This alliance is called the Delian could vote on equal terms with the Spartans
League by modern historians because its in the League conferences. It was essentially a
official treasury was established at the defensive alliance that was only activated
sanctuary of Apollo on the tiny island of when there was a clear threat to the security
Delos, in the centre of the Cyclades. of one or more of its members.
10. 12 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
A bronze statue of Athena, patron goddess of the
Athenians c. 450.The statue shows Athena wearing a
hoplrte's helmet. Her right arm originally held a spear
and on her left can be seen the remnant of a strap for
a large, round hoplite shield. The base bears an
inscription saying, Melisso dedicated this as a tithe to
Athena.' (Ancient Art and Architecture)
whole League force was lost. Kimon had
been exiled in 461 but he returned in 451 to
lead further campaigns, including an
invasion of the Persian held island of
Cyprus, where he died in 449. Later that year
the Athenians negotiated a formal peace
treaty with Persia, known as the Peace of
Kallias.
The Delian League had proven a
remarkably successful alliance in terms of its
victories over the Persians and the security
and prosperity it earned for its members, but
what had started out as a League of Greek
states under Athenian leadership gradually
took on the character of an Athenian
Empire. As early as 470 the Aegean island
state of Naxos tried to opt out of its
obligations, but was forced back into line.
Its contribution to the League was changed
from a certain number of ships for each
campaign to a fixed annual 'tribute' of
money, a process that was applied to more
and more states. In 465 the island of
Thasos tried to revolt; its citizens endured a
two-year siege but eventually capitulated.
They were reduced to tribute status and
made to pay an indemnity, collected by the
Athenians. In 454 the League's treasury was
transferred to Athens. This move has made
it possible for historians to study the
The Athenian Empire finances of the League in some detail,
because the Athenians gave one sixtieth of
The Delian League successfully waged war the annual tribute to their patron goddess
against the Persians, culminating in a Athena each year, recording the payments
magnificent victory under the command of on stone slabs. Many of these so-called
the Athenian general Kimon at the 'tribute lists' have survived and they show
Eurymedon river in 466. A Persian fleet of both the widening extent and the increasing
200 ships was destroyed and with it the wealth of the Athenian Empire. Allied
main threat to the security of the Greeks in revolts were put down with considerable
the Aegean. In 459 the Delian League sent ferocity and in some cases the Athenians
200 ships to the Nile Delta to assist in an appropriated land from the recalcitrant allies
Egyptian revolt against the Persians, but four and established colonies of Athenian
years later this revolt was crushed and the citizens there, to act in part as garrisons.
11. Background to war 13
Inscribed records of decisions of the In the fifth century BC, the Greeks felt
Athenian Assembly routinely refer to the that going to war in order to resolve a
allies as 'the cities which the Athenians dispute or assert a claim to something was a
rule'. Athens dominated the economic life right and proper thing to do. This certainly
of her subject allies, particularly their did not mean that they always resorted to
maritime trade. Some of the profits of the violence in order to settle arguments, but the
Empire were spent on the Athenian navy, on attempt to decide matters by armed force
pay for Athenian citizens who carried out was accepted as a normal way of behaving
public offices and, it was rumoured among for communities and states. If a state was felt
the other Greeks, the magnificent public to deserve punishment, it was not unusual
buildings which adorned the city of Athens for the inhabitants to be sold into slavery; in
from the 440s onwards. extreme cases the men might all be executed.
Given the small size of most individual
states, it was natural that treaties for mutual
The 'First' Peloponnesian War defence against third parties were regularly
made, with each side promising to come to
The major turning point in relations the aid of the other in the event of an attack.
between the Athenians and the Spartans A common formula for such alliances was
came in 462 BC. Two years earlier an that both parties agreed to have the same
earthquake had devastated Sparta, killing friends and enemies.
thousands. It sparked off a major revolt One of the first things the Athenians did
among the Helots of Lakonia and Messenia, to vent their anger against the Spartans,
who were servile populations under direct therefore, was to make an alliance in 460
Spartan rule. Some of the Messenians with Argos, Sparta's most powerful neighbour
successfully resisted Spartan attempts to in the Peloponnese and her long-standing
bring them to heel and established enemy. They also took advantage of a border
themselves on Mount Ithome in Messenia. dispute between their western neighbour,
In 462, in response to a Spartan appeal to all Megara, and her neighbour Corinth to detach
her allies for help, Kimon persuaded the Megara from the Peloponnesian League. To
Athenians that he should lead a small army make Megara more secure from attack the
to assist them. Kimon and his force had not Athenians built fortifications which linked
been in Messenia for very long when they, the port of Nisaia to the city of Megara
alone of all the allies whom the Spartans had proper. The Athenians were acting out of
invited to help them, were dismissed. The self-interest in strengthening Megara. A
reason for this seems to have been a growing Peloponnesian attack on their own territory
sympathy for the Messenians' cause among would probably have to come through the
the Athenians. Megarians' territory, known as the Megarid;
Kimon was exiled on his return by the an Athenian garrison was established in
Athenians, who felt humiliated and insulted Megara. In 459 the Athenians began building
by the Spartans' actions. From 460 to 446 their own fortifications, known as the Long
there was constant political tension between Walls, to link the city of Athens to its main
the two sides, with both Athens and Sparta port at Peiraieus.
forming alliances with each other's enemies. Another Athenian alliance, with the
In some cases the tension resulted in a series Thessalians, improved both their military and
of military conflicts which exacerbated the strategic position. The extensive open plains of
rivalry. These conflicts are sometimes called Thessaly were ideal country for breeding and
the First Peloponnesian War, although to training horses, so the Thessalians were among
some extent they lack the continuity and the best cavalrymen in the Greek world,
coherence which is characteristic of a whereas mountainous Attika did not suit the
single war. breeding of horses and produced few
12. 14 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
cavalrymen. The Thessalians were also the territory, then headed north into the
northern neighbours of the Boiotians, whose Corinthian Gulf, capturing the Corinthian-
southern borders with the Athenians were the held city of Chalkis on the northern shore of
subject of several disputes. In Thessaly and the narrow entrance to the Gulf. This
Megara the Athenians saw opportunities to expedition demonstrated the strategic
weaken the Spartans by putting pressure on advantage of Athens' massive fleet. A more
their allies. significant outcome, however, was the
In 457 the first major clash between the capture of the small city of Naupaktos, also
two sides occurred. The Peloponnesians on the northern shore of the Gulf of
bypassed Megara by taking their army by Corinth. Here the Athenians established a
sea across the Gulf of Corinth. They large group of Messenians who had been
encountered an Athenian army at Tanagra allowed to leave by the Spartans as the only
in Boiotia. The ranks of the Athenians were way of ending the Messenian revolt. They
swelled to over 14,000 men by their allies, were to play a major role in the future
including 1,000 Argives, a large contingent confrontations between Athens and Sparta.
from the Ionian states of the Delian League The Athenians made more sorties north to
and a force of Thessalian cavalry. The punish the Thessalians for their treachery at
Spartans and their allies numbered less than Tanagra and in 454 they sailed into the
12,000, but after two days of heavy fighting, Corinthian Gulf once more to discourage
during which the Thessalians changed sides, naval activity by the Corinthians and harry
the Spartans won a prestigious victory. Once their allies and friends in Western Greece.
they had returned to the Peloponnese, But the destruction of the Athenian
however, the Athenians defeated the expedition to Egypt, increasing difficulties in
Boiotians in a separate battle at nearby
Oinophyta, gaining control over much of This model shows an Athenian trireme at rest in one
central Greece as a result. of the specially constructed ship-sheds around the
In 456 the Athenian general Tolmides Peiraieus. As well as the ships and their crews a Greek
city needed to invest in substantial facilities in order Lo
took a force of 50 ships and, stopping at
maintain an effective navy. For many of the cities in
Gytheion on the coast of Lakonia, burnt the the Delian League the cost was too great, so they
Spartan's dockyard facilities. The Athenians contributed money rather than ships to the League's
also ravaged some of the surrounding war efforts, (J F Coates)
13. Background to war 15
A sixth-century black-figure Athenian painted vase showing two warriors
fighting. Although Greek armies regularly consisted of several thousand
men, artists preferred to paint scenes of individual duels in the tradition of
the Greek heroes of the Homeric epic the Iliad. (Ashmolean Museum)
14. 16 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
Scenes of parting like this one are quite common on structure was created by the Boiotians, with
Athenian painted pottery from the fifth century. Athens their largest city, Thebes, taking a leading
and her allies were at war with Persia or their fellow
role. This move inspired the island of Euboia
Greeks almost continually from the Persian invasion of
480 to the conclusion of the Thirty Years' peace in 446.
to revolt from Athens. While the Athenians
(Ancient Art and Architecture) were trying to suppress the Euboians, the
Megarians, encouraged by Corinth and
controlling the Athenian Empire, and the Sikyon, also revolted, killing their Athenian
reluctance of the Spartans to venture out of garrisons, and the young Spartan king
the Peloponnese reduced the belligerence of Pleistoanax led the army of the
both sides. A five-year truce was agreed in Peloponnesian League into the Megarid to
451, as well as a Thirty Years' Peace between consolidate the revolt of Megara. The
Sparta and Argos. Athenian general Perikles rushed his forces
In 446 the Boiotians began to agitate back from Euboia to confront Pleistoanax,
against Athenian domination and a punitive who had reached Eleusis. The Spartan king
expedition led by Tolmides was defeated at withdrew without any attempt at battle,
Koroneia, with many Athenians taken leaving Perikles free to return to Euboia and
captive. In order to secure their safe return suppress the revolt. There were accusations
Athens abandoned all of Boiotia except the that he had bribed the Spartan king and
southern city of Plataia. A federal political Pleistoanax's senior adviser, Kleandridas, was
15. Background to war 17
This photograph shows an impression taken from one of the huge stones on which
the Athenians recorded the dedication of '/so of their annual tribute to the goddess
Athena. By studying the details of these 'tribute lists' histonans have discovered how
some of the cities that revolted from the Delian League were punished through loss
of territory and the imposition of colonies of Athenian settlers, which resulted in
their payments being reduced. (Archive of Squeezes. Oxford)
16. 18 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
Athens and Peiraeus during the war
condemned to death for treason and forced suspicion which had caused the 'First'
into exile to avoid execution. He eventually Peloponnesian War was not dispelled by the
settled in Thurii, an Athenian colony in Thirty Years' Peace, however, and both sides
Southern Italy, where he became a leading continued to look for ways to disadvantage
military commander and was influential in each other. When the island of Samos in the
bringing the city into an alliance with the Eastern Aegean revolted against Athens with
Peloponnesians in 435. Pleistoanax himself Persian help in 441, the Spartans tried to
was tried and acquitted, but he nevertheless take advantage of this and go to war with
went into exile as well. Athens, but at a meeting in 440 they could
In 446 the Athenians agreed a peace not persuade a majority of members of
treaty with the Spartans, to last for 30 years. Peloponnesian League to vote with them.
Its terms were that each side should retain its Nevertheless there was a growing sense
territory and alliances. Athens gave up any among the Greeks that a decisive
claim over Boiotia and agreed to stop trying confrontation between Athens and Sparta
to expand her empire at the expense of the was looming. In the historian Thucydides'
Peloponnesian states, but she kept control of view, although there were several short-term
Naupaktos. An important clause in the treaty justifications for the main Peloponnesian
provided for independent arbitration of any War, it was 'the increasing magnitude of
disputes that might arise over the observance Athenian power and the fear this caused to
of its terms. The mutual dislike and the Spartans that forced them into war.'
17. Warring sides
Athens and Sparta
In the fifth century BC Greece was divided territory. Although there were many
into hundreds of independent city-states; the differences in the ways that each state was
Greek word for this type of state was polis organised and governed, broadly speaking
(plural poleis). The size of these states varied they came in two types: either a democracy,
considerably, but most comprised an urban where decision making was in 'the hands of
centre, where much of the population lived, the majority of the citizens, or an oligarchy,
and where the principal public buildings in which effective control of decision making
were located, plus a surrounding rural was limited to a minority of the citizens.
Greece in the Peloponnesian War 431-404
18. 20 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
Athens practice meetings tended to be dominated
by a handful of individuals. These
Athens was a relatively large state comprising politicians were often men of aristocratic
the peninsula of Attika, with the city of birth, whose wealth, education, family
Athens as its political and religious centre. connections and military experience
The Athenians had a very broadly based, commanded respect among the ordinary
democratic constitution. The major decisions citizens. Kimon, the leader of several
were taken by the Assembly, attendance at successful Delian League expeditions
which was open to all adult male citizens. against the Persian Empire was one such
The Assembly met regularly to debate figure, but the most influential politician
proposals on important issues put before it by in the mid-fifth century was Perikles, the
a committee, but anyone who wanted to son of Xanthippos. As well as being rich,
could speak out in a debate, or make their well bred and a good military commander,
own proposal, as long as it was not contrary Perikles was an excellent orator. He was
to one that had already been voted into law. able to persuade the citizens in the
The Assembly could not meet every day, so Assembly to elect him as a general year
mundane financial and administrative after year and to vote in favour of his
matters and the day-to-day running of the proposals for using the political power
state's affairs were in the hands of several and financial resources of the Athenian
smaller committees. The most important of Empire for the benefit of the poorer
these was the Council, consisting of 500 men citizens. After Perikles' death in 429 many
who were selected by lot from citizens over other politicians competed for popularity
the age of 30. It was the Council that and influence over the Athenians, but none
prepared the agenda for meetings of the ever managed to attain such a dominant
Assembly. A sub-committee of 50 members of position again.
the Council was permanently on duty each
month, living in a special building next to
the Council chamber. Membership of the A photograph of the remains of the Athenian
Acropolis. The rocky outcrop in the middle of Athens
Council and the other committees changed
had been a citadel and a sanctuary for many centuries
every year, which meant that there were and had several temples, Around 447 Pericles persuaded
plenty of opportunities for ordinary citizens the Athenians to transform it by building a monumental
to participate in government. set of marble buildings which were to be the most
magnificent in the Greek world,They served as potent
Although in theory any Athenian citizen symbols of the wealth, power and pride of the
was entitled to speak out in the Assembly, in Athenians. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
19. Warring sides 21
Sparta rigours of warfare, but still in full possession
of their mental faculties. The main function
Sparta was the name of the city in the of the members of the gerousia was to oversee
centre of the fertile territory of Lakonia (also observance of Sparta's laws and customs,
called Lakedaimon). Unlike Athens Sparta particularly in relation to the upbringing and
had few monumental buildings and it was discipline of citizens. They could act as a
essentially a loose amalgamation of five consultative body for the kings and the
villages. The Spartans had gradually evolved ephors on major public decisions, although
a system that combined monarchical and there is no clear evidence as to their role in
democratic elements within an oligarchy. determining foreign policy. They discussed
Over the preceding centuries most of the and prepared proposals which were put
Greek states had expelled their kings, or before the assembly of Spartan citizens, and
reduced them to purely ceremonial they acted as a court for political trials, or
functions, but the Spartans retained two inquests into the conduct of kings and other
kings who acted as leaders in warfare and leading Spartans. The two kings were also
religious matters. In most respects, however, members of the gerousia. They could exercise
Sparta was a typical oligarchy, with its a leading role in its deliberations through
public business in the hands of a few men. informal ties of patronage and friendship
Major decisions were referred to an assembly with its members.
of adult male citizens, but there was little or An interesting difference in the way the
no chance for the ordinary citizens to citizen assemblies of Athens and Sparta
discuss or debate them. They were simply operated was that, whereas the Athenians
expected to indicate their agreement or assessed the size of a majority by counting
disagreement with what their leaders raised hands, the Spartans judged decisions
suggested. Debates on important issues were on the basis of how loudly the assembled
restricted to smaller groups of elected citizens shouted in favour of a proposal, or a
officials. Every year the Spartans elected a candidate for election. Such a method was
board of five overseers or ephors, who had less precise and the outcome could be more
wide ranging executive, disciplinary and easily manipulated by the presiding
judicial powers over all the people of magistrates. It is indicative of a strong
Lakonia, including the two kings. Although reluctance among the members of the ruling
they were not subject to any written laws oligarchy to allow the citizen body to have
and they had the authority to prosecute any true sovereignty over public affairs. This
Spartan citizen, regardless of their official antipathy towards full democracy, as
status, the ephors were only in power for a practised by the Athenians and many of
year and they could not be re-elected at their allies, was one of the fundamental
any time. causes of tension between the two sides.
The Spartans did not have a deliberative
council that routinely discussed all public
business, as the Athenian Council of 500 did. Military hierarchies
Instead they had a council of senior citizens,
called the gerousia, whose 28 members were The command structures of the two sides also
elected by their fellow citizens for life, but reveal a lot about their different political and
they normally did not achieve this status social systems. Athenian armies were usually
until they were over 60 years of age. This commanded by one or more members of a
high age limit is not particularly surprising board of 10 generals, who were elected
given the ancient Greeks' traditional respect annually by the citizens. Successful generals,
for age and experience. Men who had like Kimon or Perikles, were often re-elected
reached 60 were considered to be in physical and they exploited their popularity and
decline, and so no longer suited for the prestige to play a leading role in Athenian
20. 22 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
politics, whereas unsuccessful, or unpopular them. Even the great Perikles suffered the
generals would not be re-elected. The humiliation of being deposed and fined early
generals could be held to account for their on in the war because the Athenians did not
actions by the Assembly, which sometimes regard his strategy as being successful. The
acted as a court sitting in judgment over ultimate sovereignty of the Athenian citizens
over their generals tended to have an
The two men on this Spartan relief are probably citizens. inhibiting effect on their actions.
The Spartans prided themselves on their constant The full Spartan army could only be
readiness to light for their crty.They were expected to
commanded by one of the kings, or a
value their city and their comrades above themselves and
their families. Until the age of 30 they did not even live in regent if the kings were unable to take
their own homes, but stayed in their mess halls and visited command in person. The kings were
their wives occasionally. (Ancient Art and Architecture) accompanied on campaign by two ephors,
21. Warring sides 23
A Roman bust of Perikles based on an Athenian original. active service. The ephors could, however,
Perikles was so good at persuading the Athenians to prosecute the kings before a court
vote for his proposals that the historian Thucydides felt
consisting of themselves and the gerowia, if
that although the Athens of his time was called a
democracy, in fact it was ruled by its leading citizen. they considered that they had acted
(Ancient Art and Architecture) inappropriately while in command of the
army. During the Peloponnesian War the
full Spartan army rarely took the field.
but the kings seem to have exercised Instead one of the kings led armies
complete authority while the army was on consisting of a small proportion of Spartan
22. 24 Essential Histories -The Peloponnesian War
This Athenian vase depicts a soldier taking leave of his family as he goes off
to war It was part of the public duty of an Athenian citizen to fight when
called upon. Normally it was only the fairly prosperous citizens who could
afford the equipment of a hoplite.The poorer citizens were more likely to
serve as oarsmen or sailors in the fleet. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
23. Warring sides 25
citizens, along with the combined forces of allies, principally the large and populous
their Peloponnesian League allies on island of Chios. It is unlikely that the
campaigns in Southern and Central Greece. allies regularly contributed as many as
For expeditions further afield they sent half of the soldiers involved in all the
much smaller Spartan detachments, led by military undertakings of the Peloponnesian
specially appointed Spartan officers. These War. Athens despatched troops to many
men were allowed a great deal of latitude in parts of the Greek world during the war
deciding how to conduct their operations, and often there will have been only a few
but internal rivalries and jealousies were allied soldiers involved, mostly serving
commonplace among the Spartans. At as mercenaries.
several points during the war successful Naval manpower requirements were on
commanders were refused reinforcements or a far larger scale. Few cities, even one a
prevented from carrying on their populous as Athens, had the necessary
achievements because other Spartans did resources to man a large fleet, since a
not want them to gain too much prestige. trireme normally required 150-170 oarsmen,
plus skilled sailors and steersmen, who were
especially hard to find. In 433, for example,
Athenian manpower when the Corinthians were preparing a
major expedition against Corcyra, they
It has been estimated that the total number offered very generous rates of pay to
of adult male Athenian citizens in 431 was potential rowers from all over the Greek
around 40,000. Of these about 1,000 were world in a desperate attempt to recruit
wealthy enough to serve as cavalrymen, enough oarsmen to man their ships.
which involved maintaining their own Similarly, it was vital for the Athenians
horses. Of the rest as many as 20,000 may to be able to recruit from as wide a pool of
have been eligible to serve as hoplites, the naval manpower as possible and they had to
heavily armed infantrymen who usually pay recruits well enough to prevent them
formed the core of a Greek citizen army, but from deserting to the other side, or
less than half of them would be called upon returning home.
to fight at any one time. In practice the
forces that Athens mobilised during the war
were composed of her own citizens and Spartan manpower
those of her allies, supplemented by
mercenaries. Athens commanded fleets and Male Spartan citizens (Spartiates in Greek)
armies drawn from her Delian League allies were almost constantly in training as
many times during the fifth century but hoplites. They did not have any other
only on a few occasions are we able to get a occupation and their farmland was worked
clear idea of the proportions of Athenian to for them by slaves. Their training began at a
allied forces involved in the campaigns of very early age, usually five or six years and
the Peloponnesian War. The most detailed continued through various stages until, at 18
breakdown is provided by Thucydides when years' old, they were allowed to attend
he describes the forces sent on an meetings of the citizen assembly and go
expedition to Sicily in 415. There were abroad on military expeditions. At this age
5,100 hoplites, or heavy infantrymen, of they were admitted to a mess group (the
whom 2,200 were Athenian citizens, Greek word for which is syssition). Each mess
750 were mercenaries from the Peloponnese, group was made up of about 15 Spartans
and the remaining 2,150 were supplied by who trained, exercised, dined and fought
Athens' subject allies of the Delian League. together. In theory they were all of equal
The fleet of 134 trireme warships was made status and contributed food and other
up of 100 Athenian vessels and 34 from the resources to a common stock of supplies. If
24. 26 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
they could not afford to make their regular Messenia. These slaves were called Helots
contributions they could be deprived of their and they were the descendants of people
full citizen status. who were conquered and enslaved by the
The total number of full Spartan citizens Spartans in a series of wars from about
was never very large. Even when it was at 950 to 700 BC. The Messenians proved very
its greatest extent, towards the end of the difficult to control and organised major
sixth century BC, it was probably less than revolts against the Spartans on several
10,000, and by the start of the occasions. The Helots of Lakonia were less
Peloponnesian War there may have been rebellious and substantial numbers of them
only half that number of adult male citizens normally accompanied the Spartans to war,
available for military service. So from where acting as baggage carriers and fighting as
did the Spartans obtain the manpower for light armed soldiers. During the
their armies? To some extent they relied Peloponnesian War they were used as
upon the non-Spartan population of oarsmen and sailors on Spartan naval
Lakonia, especially those men who lived in vessels. In exceptional circumstances
the towns and villages around Sparta and Helots were equipped and trained to fight
were called the Perioikoi, which means as hoplites, on the understanding that
'dwellers around'. The Perioikoi lived in they would be given their freedom at the
autonomous communities, some of which end of the campaign for which they
were large towns or even small cities. Unlike were recruited.
the Spartans they worked for a living, as An important feature of the Spartan
farmers, traders and craftsmen. It was the system for maintaining discipline and
Perioikoi who made the armour and obedience was the regular use of physical
weapons used by Spartans as well as violence. From the start of their boyhood
day-to-day items like pottery, furniture and training Spartans were beaten by their elders
cloth. Usually they fought as hoplites and superiors. Spartan citizens were
alongside the Spartans themselves. especially encouraged to use violence
When they needed to assemble a large against the Helots. Each year the Spartan
army to take on another Greek state, like ephors declared a ritual war on the Helots,
Athens or Argos, the Spartans called upon thus justifying the killing of any
the allied states of the Peloponnesian troublesome Helots and keeping the rest
League. The nearest of these were the cities in a constant state of fear. Yet for all their
of Arkadia, the mountainous region to the heavy-handed domination and control of
north and west of Lakonia. The main the Helots, the Spartans could not do
Arkadian cities of Orchomenos, Tegea and without them. It was the labour of the
Mantinea were not very large, but each Helots that furnished the individual Spartan
of them could easily muster several citizens with natural products for their
hundred soldiers. Larger contingents were contributions to the communal messes.
contributed by more distant states like Throughout the Classical period the
Corinth and Thebes. These allies probably Spartans' main priority was always to keep
provided the majority of hoplites in any their dominant position over the Helots,
Spartan army, especially when serving who were so essential to their own way of
outside of the Peloponnese. life. But this was no easy task, even for men
who were constantly prepared for war. The
Messenian revolt of 462-456 showed how
The Helot curse fragile the Spartans' control was, and the
abrupt dismissal of Kimon and his Athenian
The Spartans also made considerable use of contingent indicates how sensitive Spartans
the large, publicly owned, slave population were to any interference in their
of Lakonia and its neighbouring region, relationship with the Messenians. The
25. Warring sides 27
This bronze statuette of a hoplite was probably made in
Lakonia and dedicated by a Spartan citizen at the
sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia.The Spartans were famous
for their zealous observance of religious rituals. Many
similar offerings have been found in sanctuaries around
the Peloponnese and elsewhere in Greece. (Ancient Art
and Architecture)
continual need to subjugate this conquered
population was the main reason why the
Spartans were reluctant to commit large
numbers of citizens to campaigns outside
the Peloponnese. In the words of the
modern scholar Geoffrey de Sainte Croix,
who studied the history of the
Peloponnesian War in great detail: 'The
Helot danger was the curse Sparta had
brought upon herself, an admirable
illustration of the maxim that a people
which oppresses another cannot itself be
free.'
26. Outbreak
Fear and suspicion lead to war
The most immediate, short-term cause of the The other Corinthian complaint was over
Peloponnesian War, according to Thucydides, Athens' treatment of the city of Poteidaia.
was the judgment of the Spartans, endorsed This city, located on the westernmost spur of
by their allies, that the Athenians had broken the Chalkidike peninsula, had originally
the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace. A key been founded by Corinthians and still
clause was a guarantee that no state would be received its annual magistrates from Corinth.
deprived of its autonomy. This did not mean It was a tribute-paying member of the Delian
that the Athenians could not demand tribute League and of great strategic importance
from their subject allies, nor that the Spartans because of its proximity to the territory of
had to relinquish control over the the Macedonian king, Perdikkas, who was a
Peloponnesian League. Rather it meant that former ally of Athens. Perdikkas was now
no state should be deprived of the freedom to encouraging the cities of Chalkidike to revolt
run its own affairs, insofar as it had done from Athens. They had formed a league with
before the peace treaty was agreed. The its political and economic centre at
Athenians were accused of failing to respect Olynthos. The Poteidaians had been ordered
this clause by several of the Greek states. by Athens to send their Corinthian
magistrates back home and dismantle their
fortifications. While they negotiated with
The case against Athens the Athenians they sent an embassy to the
Peloponnese and obtained an assurance from
The Spartans were under considerable pressure Sparta that if the Athenians attacked
from their allies in the Peloponnesian League Poteidaia, Sparta would invade Attika. The
to restrain the Athenians. In 432 they invited Athenians were fearful that they might lose
all interested parties to put their case before a control of this prosperous area, which
meeting of the Spartan Assembly. Prominent provided some seven per cent of their tribute
among the states arguing for war was Corinth. revenue, so they sent forces to lay siege to
There were two main Corinthian complaints. the city, which had been reinforced by
One was the action of Athens on behalf of troops from Corinth and mercenaries from
Coreyra (modern Corfu) against the the Peloponnese. The Corinthians
Corinthians. In 435 the Corinthian colony of complained that Athens was breaking the
Corcyra was involved in a dispute with her terms of the Peace and demanded that the
colony at Epidamnos, in modern Albania. Spartans invade Attika.
This dispute escalated to involve the A further complaint against Athens was
Corinthians, on the side of Epidamnos, in a made by the people of Megara, who
naval battle in 432 with the Athenians, who complained that they had been excluded from
had made a defensive alliance with Corcyra in access to the harbours'and market-place of
433. Corcyra had a large navy of her own and Athens by a decree of the Athenian Assembly.
the Corinthians and other Peloponnesians The purpose of what is known as the Megarian
feared that their alliance might make the decree seems to have been to put pressure on
Athenians invincible at sea. They also saw the the Megarians to abandon their alliance with
Athenians' involvement as unjustifiable Sparta and the Peloponnesians and resume
interference in their affairs, contrary to the their alliance with Athens, which they had
terms of the Thirty Years' Peace. abandoned in 446. The Megarians' territory
27. Outbreak 29
These sketches show reconstructions of typical Athenian houses based on
archeological remains.The walls were built of sun-dried clay bricks and the
roofs were covered with large pottery tiles.The windows had no glass, only
wooden shutters. Most houses were built around a small courtyard and those
of wealthier families would usually have an upper storey. (John Ellis Jones)
28. 30 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
bordered on Attika in the east and provided simply a set of religious sanctions imposed
potential access for a Peloponnesian army to because the Megarians had cultivated some
attack Athens. The exclusions from Athenian land which was supposed to be left
harbours and markets seem to have had a very untouched as it was sacred to the gods, as
severe effect on Megarian trade. This is not well as some disputed territory on the border
surprising as Athens was the largest city in between Attika and the Megarid. They also
Greece and her commercial harbour at accused the Megarians of sheltering runaway
Peiraieus was a major centre of maritime trade. Athenian slaves.
Representatives from the island state of
Aigina also complained that their autonomy
was being infringed by Athens. Aigina had The Spartans and their allies
been part of the Athenian Empire since 458, vote for war
but is not unlikely that the Athenians had
recently begun to behave more aggressively Having heard the complaints and the
towards Aiginetans for similar reasons to those counter-arguments of the Athenians, the
which were causing them to put pressure on Spartans removed everyone except the full
Megara. The Athenians must have been Spartan citizens from the assembly place so
conscious of the fact that Aigina provided a that they could discuss the matter among
potential base for naval attacks on Athens and themselves. The vast majority of the
her maritime trade. Autonomy was fine for Spartans were angered by what they had
some of the more distant islands or cities in heard. Their allies had convinced them that
the Aegean, but for places on their doorstep the Athenians had broken the terms of the
the Athenians preferred the same kind of close Thirty Years' Peace and were acting with
control as the Spartans exercised over their unreasonable aggression. In consequence
Messenian neighbours. An Athenian garrison there was great enthusiasm for immediately
was installed on the island by 432 and, declaring war on Athens. At this point one
although the Aiginetan tribute payments were of the two kings, Archidamos, introduced a
reduced by over half, this meant an effective note of caution. He seems to have argued
end to the Aiginetans' right to govern that it was premature of the Spartans to
themselves freely, again contrary to the key rush into war a with Athens, whose
clause of the Thirty Years' Peace. extensive empire provided her with the
The Athenians claimed that they had the resources to fight a protracted war more
right to do as they pleased regarding their easily than the Spartans. He pointed out
empire, which they had won for themselves that Athens' chief strength lay in her naval
at considerable cost. They probably had not power, while Sparta was essentially a land
expected their treatment of Aigina to become power. He advised sending diplomatic
an issue, given the fact that in the case of missions to try to seek negotiated
Samos in 440 the Corinthians themselves had settlements of the various disputes, while at
upheld the right of Athens to police its own the same time recruiting new allies,
empire. In the case of Corcyra they felt that accumulating resources and preparing for a
they were doing no more than responding to war in which expensive naval campaigns
a defensive request from an ally, although it would be necessary to obtain victory. He
is unlikely that they entered into the alliance had to put his arguments carefully, in order
without some expectation of clashing with to avoid offending the Spartans' sense of
the Corinthians. They pointed out that duty towards their allies and their great
Poteidaia was one of their tribute-paying pride in their martial prowess, whilst at the
allies and had been encouraged to revolt by same time pointing out to them the true
the Corinthians, who were openly fighting size of the task that lay before them.
against them on the side of the Poteidaians. Thucydides' version of a key part of his
The Megarian decree, they claimed, was speech is as follows:
29. Outbreak 31
No-one can call us cowards if, in spite of our had broken the terms of the Thirty Years'
numbers, we seem in no hurry to attack a single Peace.
city. Their allies are no less numerous than ours Even now the Spartans were reluctant to
and theirs contribute money. And in war it is the act. They sent an embassy to Athens to try
expenditure which enables the weapons to bring to negotiate a settlement. The autonomy of
results, especially in a conflict between a land Poteidaia and Aigina was raised in these
power and a sea power. Let us gather our discussions, but the main sticking point
resources first and not get rushed into premature seems to have been the Megarian decree,
action by the words of our allies. We shall have which the Athenians refused to rescind.
to bear the brunt of it all, however things turn Eventually a Spartan envoy delivered the
out. So let us consider the options in a calm message, 'We want peace and we want the
fashion. Athenians to let their allies be free.' Perikles
told the Athenian Assembly that the
In response to Archidamos' sensible and Spartans could not be trusted to stop at
cautious arguments the ephor Sthenelaidas these demands, but would try to force them
appealed to the sense of outrage at the to give up more and more in the name of
Athenians' high-handed behaviour and freedom for the Greeks. He encouraged the
exhorted the Spartans to take decisive action Athenians to tell the Spartan envoys that
against them. Thucydides' version of his they too should stop interfering in the
speech dismisses Archidamos' concerns over affairs of their own allies, and submit the
resources and emphasises the need to problem of supposed infringements of the
respond decisively to the demands of Thirty Years' Peace to arbitration. At this
Sparta's allies: point the Spartans abandoned the
negotiations. As Thucydides stressed, the
For while the other side may have plenty of underlying cause of the war was Athens'
money, ships and horses, we have good allies growing power and the fear that caused
whom we cannot betray to the Athenians. Nor is among the Spartans and their allies. No
this something to be decided by diplomacy and amount of diplomacy would change the
negotiations; it's not through words that our reality of that power or the fear that it
interests are being harmed. Our vengeance must was generating.
be strong and swift... So vote as befits you
Spartans, for war! Do not allow the Athenians to
become stronger and do not utterly betray your The Thebans strike first
allies! With the gods beside us let us challenge
the unrighteous! The Boiotians also had grievances against
the Athenians going back nearly 30 years.
In spite of the fervour of his rhetoric, Plataia was the only Boiotian city which had
when Sthenelaidas, as the ephor presiding not joined the Boiotian League, in which
over the Spartan assembly, put the matter to the Thebans were the dominant force. It is
a vote, he claimed that he could not tell not entirely surprising, therefore, that the
whether the shouts were louder for or opening encounter of the Peloponnesian
against going to war. So he told the Spartans War was not a Spartan led invasion of
to separate into two groups and then it was Attika, but a pre-emptive strike on Plataia by
clear that the majority favoured war. All that the Thebans, who were anxious to secure as
remained was for the Spartans to call a much of their border with Attika as possible.
congress of the Peloponnesian League to get They were acting in concert with a group of
their allies' approval for a war against the Plataians who were unhappy with their
Athenians. The vote was not unanimous, city's long-standing alliance with Athens
but the Corinthians persuaded a majority of and wanted to bring it over to the Spartan
the Peloponnesians to declare that Athens side in line with most of the rest of Boiotia.
30. 32 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
The majority of the Plataians were unaware morning and they withdrew after being
of this plot and they were taken completely promised that the prisoners would not be
by surprise. When an advance force of harmed. The Athenians were told about the
around 300 Theban hoplites entered the city attack and sent a herald to urge the
and told the Plataians that they should join Plataians not to act rashly. By the time this
the League of Boiotian cities, they were message arrived, however, the Plataians had
initially cowed, but once they realised that gathered all their property into the city and
the rest of the Theban army had been executed their Theban prisoners. There was
delayed by heavy rain their anti-Theban and now no doubt that the Thirty Years' Peace
pro-Athenian feelings reasserted themselves. was over and Plataia was reinforced by the
After a vicious struggle at night, in the Athenians, who evacuated the women,
pouring rain, which involved not just the children and men who were too old to fight.
Plataian citizens but many of their women The attack on Plataia provided an early
and slaves, 120 Thebans were dead and the indication of the level of bloodshed which
rest surrendered. The main strength of the was to become commonplace in the Greek
Thebans did not arrive until later the next world over the next three decades.
31. The fighting
The first twenty years
The Archidamian War whose name is given by modern historians to
this part of the war.
The first 10 years of conflict between Athens The Athenians also doubted their ability to
and Sparta were considered by many of the defeat Sparta and her allies in a major hoplite
Greeks to have constituted a separate war. At confrontation, so, at the urging of Perikles,
the start of the war the Peloponnesian strategy they retreated behind their fortifications and
was to invade the territory of Attika by land, waited for the Peloponnesians to give up and
damaging crops and buildings and forcing the go home. They struck back by using their
Athenians to come out of their city and settle superior naval forces to attack the territory of
the war in a decisive pitched battle. The
Peloponnesians were confident that they would The young man featured on this Athenian wine jug of
win such a battle. If no such confrontation was about 430 BC is equipped with the typical large round
achieved, the Peloponnesians hoped that the shield, long spear and short sword of the hoplite. He
Athenian citizens would soon grow weary of wears no body armour, only a heavy tunic and a
headband to ease the fit of his bronze helmet.The lion
the attacks and look for a settlement on terms
device on his shield is a personal one. At the start of the
favourable to their opponents. For the first few Peloponnesian War most Greek cities did not have
years the Peloponnesian army was led by the standardised symbols for their soldiers, which sometimes
only available Spartan king, Archidamos, caused confusion in battle. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts)
32. 34 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
Sparta and her allies, hoping to make them arrived in Attika early in the summer, when
lose their enthusiasm for the conflict. This the crops were still a long way from ripening
strategy could not win them the war, but it and the weather was very stormy. This made it
could prolong the stalemate and might difficult for the Spartans to feed themselves
discourage enough of the enemy to force while they were camped on Athenian territory
them to make peace. The strategists on both and the troops began to complain. Then news
sides probably thought that there would be arrived of a serious Athenian incursion at
only a few years of fighting before a Pylos on the western coast of the Peloponnese
settlement was reached. and the whole army was withdrawn, having
In fact the annual invasions of the stayed in Attika for only 15 days.
Archidamian War, of which there were five A devastating plague struck Athens in 430,
between 431 and 425, did not always last very with further outbreaks in 429 and 426. The
long, nor, indeed, did they succeed in doing second year it killed Perikles himself, but even
much damage. Athenian cavalry harried the this misery did not convince the Athenians to
light troops on the Peloponnesian side and seek peace. If anything it probably made them
even the longest invasion, lasting 40 days in keener to cause harm to their enemies in
430, failed to cause much harm. Athens could return and the scale and range of naval
import much of its food, particularly grain, counter-strikes was stepped up after Perikles'
via the shipping routes secured by Athens' death. The Peloponnesians themselves made
maritime empire and powerful navy. In any limited use of their naval forces, which were
case it proved difficult to assemble the principally furnished by the Corinthians. A
Peloponnesian forces at the right time to grandiose scheme was hatched to involve the
strike against Attika's agricultural resources, in Western Greeks of Sicily and Southern Italy in
part probably because many of the soldiers the war and create a huge fleet of 500
wanted to be at home on their own farmland. triremes, but this came to nothing and the
In 429 the Peloponnesians were persuaded by Athenians took the initiative in the west by
the Thebans to make a determined attempt to sending expeditions to Sicily. They went at
overcome the resistance of Plataia. The the invitation of an old ally, the city of
Spartan king Archidamos, conscious of the Leontini, which asked for their help against
historical significance of Plataia as the site of the larger city of Syracuse. Two small
Sparta's great victory over the Persians in 479, Athenian fleets were sent to Sicily in 427 and
tried to negotiate a surrender, but assurances 425, partly with the aim of disrupting grain
from the Athenians that they would not supplies from the island to the Peloponnese,
abandon the Plataians convinced those still but also with an eye towards adding as much
inside the city walls to hold out. The Spartans of the island as they could to the Athenian
built a circuit of wooden siege fortifications to Empire. In 424, however, the Sicilian cities
prevent any forces from getting in to relieve came to an understanding among themselves
the 600 or so remaining people. A breakout and the Athenians returned home without
was achieved during a winter storm by about anything to show for their efforts.
200 men, who climbed over the walls using
ladders, but they could not persuade the
Athenians to send a force to relieve the siege. The revolt of Mytilene and the
In the summer of 426 the new Spartan end of Plataia
king, Agis, son of Archidamos, was leading
another expedition of Peloponnesian forces The next major setback of the war for the
into the Isthmus of Corinth on their way to Athenians was a revolt in 428 on the island
Attika when there was an earthquake, which of Lesbos, led by the largest city, Mytilene.
forced them to turn back before they had even The cities of Lesbos had been founders of the
reached Athenian territory. In the following Delian League and their contributions to its
year a similar expedition, also led by Agis, resources were crucial to the Athenian war
33. The fighting 35
effort. With the exception of Methymna they saved, but Mytilene was deprived of her fleet
had oligarchic governments and they decided and much of her territory.
that in her severely weakened state Athens At about the same time the small garrison
would not be able to respond effectively to of Plataia finally succumbed to starvation
an attempt to break away from her control. and surrendered to the Spartans. They were
The Athenians despatched a small army and treated very harshly on the insistence of
a fleet to blockade Mytilene, which was their neighbours the Thebans. All of the 225
dependent on reinforcements and food surviving men were subjected to a 'trial' by
supplies from overseas. The Mytileneans the Spartans, at which they were each asked:
asked Sparta and the Peloponncsian League 'Have you done anything of benefit to the
for help and a relief force was slowly Lakedaimonians (i.e. the Spartans) and their
assembled under the command of the allies in the current war?' As none of the
Spartan Alkidas. The Athenians moved faster, defenders could answer yes to this question,
however, sending a second fleet of 100 ships the Spartans decided that they were justified
early in 427, in spite of the losses caused by in executing all of them. The 110 women
the plague. The oligarchic regime at Mytilene who had stayed behind were sold as slaves.
distributed weapons to the mass of the
population to stiffen their defences, but this
plan backfired and the newly empowered Naval warfare
citizens demanded a general distribution of
grain to feed the starving population. When At sea the war was fought almost entirely
this did not materialise they surrendered the between fleets of triremes. These were
city to the Athenian commander Paches, who warships rowed by up to 170 oarsmen and
sent the leaders of the revolt back to Athens. manned by 30 or more sailors and soldiers.
A debate ensued in the Athenian Assembly The number of rowers could be varied so that
about the appropriate punishment for the a trireme could carry enough troops to act as
Mytilenean rebels. The politician Kleon an assault ship for small forces, or it could be
persuaded the citizens that an example had to used to tow and escort troop carriers if a
be made of the people of Mytilene in order to larger army needed to be transported. When
discourage further revolts. He proposed that fully crewed the ships were dangerous
all the adult male citizens should be executed offensive weapons in themselves, each
and the women and children sold into sporting a heavy bronze ram on its prow,
slavery. The Assembly voted in favour of this which could damage an enemy vessel's hull if
and despatched a ship to tell Paches to carry it impacted with enough force. Consequently
out this brutal decree. The next day, however, the best naval tactics involved manoeuvring
many people realised the injustice of the behind or to the side of an enemy ship and
decision. A second meeting of the Assembly rowing hard enough to smash the ram
was called and the citizens voted to rescind against its hull and rupture it. Another, more
their decree and only to punish those who dangerous, tactic was for the helmsman to
were guilty of leading the revolt. A second steer close into the enemy on one side and
trireme was sent out with the revised orders. break off their oars, having signalled his own
Its crew rowed in shifts, not putting in to land rowers to ship their oars just before the
at night, as was normal on such a voyage. vessels made contact. The triremes were
Ambassadors from Mytilene supplied them lightweight vessels that did not easily sink
with food and drink while they rowed and when they were holed, but instead they
promised great rewards if they could make up would often remain afloat, or perhaps
the 24 hours start that the previous ship had partially submerged, and they could be towed
on them. Eventually they reached Mytilene away by whichever side was the victor. The
just as Paches was reading the orders delivered crews of damaged ships were very vulnerable,
by the first ship. The mass of the citizens were however, and unless their own ships came
34. 36 Essential Histories ' T h e Peloponnesian War
quickly to their rescue they might be captured, manoeuvrability of the Athenians. After
or if the ship was completely awash with water initially losing nine ships to this
they could easily drown. Surprisingly few overwhelming force, Phormio and his
Greeks were strong swimmers, since they did remaining commanders broke away and
not swim for pleasure. Even if there was an retreated towards Naupaktos. The
accessible coastline close by it might be held Peloponnesians pursued, but their lead ships
by enemy troops who could kill or capture became too spread out to support each other.
those men who did make it ashore. As the final Athenian ship reached Naupaktos
it went behind a merchant ship at anchor in
the bay and turned on the foremost of the
Athenian naval superiority pursuing vessels, ramming it amidships and
causing the rest to stop rowing and wait for
In 429 the Peloponnesians sent out a fleet their comrades. This decision left them sitting
under the command of the Spartan Knemon in the water and vulnerable to the swift
to challenge the Athenian squadron under the counter-attacks of the Athenians, who now
command of Phormio based at Naupaktos. rowed out and rejoined the battle. Because
This naval base was strategically located to they were now very close to the shore some of
intercept Peloponnesian fleets sailing to and the Peloponnesians ran aground, or came
from Corinth, the Northern Peloponnese and close enough for the Messenians who were
Eastern Boiotia. Phormio had only 20 ships, based at Naupaktos to swim out, some in
whereas Knemon had a total of 47, drawn their armour and swarm aboard some of the
from Corinth and Sikyon. Nevertheless ships. The Athenians recaptured most of their
Phormio attacked and succeeded in putting own ships, which the Peloponnesians had
the Peloponnesians on the defensive. They been towing behind them. They also took six
formed most of their ships into a circle with Peloponnesian vessels, on one of which was a
the prows facing outwards, their aim being to Spartan commander called Timokrates, who
prevent the Athenians from getting behind killed himself rather than be captured by the
any of them. Five of the best ships were Athenians. From this point onwards the
stationed in the centre of the circle to attack Peloponnesians generally avoided naval
any Athenian vessel that managed to get confrontations with the Athenians until the
inside the formation. Phormio's response to Athenian navy had been seriously weakened
this tactic was to tell the commanders of his by the Sicilian Expedition. In 425, when the
own ships to sail around the fringes of this Peloponnesian fleet sent to Corcyra was
circle, getting gradually closer to the recalled to assist in removing Demosthenes'
Peloponnesians and forcing them to back in forces from Pylos, they chose to drag their
towards each other. Eventually, with the help ships over the narrow isthmus of Leukas
of a strong early morning wind, the circle of rather than risk a meeting with the Athenian
ships became too tightly packed and were fleet, which was heading for Corcyra.
unable to maintain their formation without Nevertheless the Athenians did not have
colliding with each other. When it was clear things entirely their own way at sea. In 429
that the Peloponnesians had lost all semblance the Spartans with Knemon were invited by
of order Phormio attacked, sinking several of the Megarians to transfer their surviving
the enemy and capturing 12 ships. crews to 40 ships docked at Niasia, the
The superior seamanship and tactics of the Megarian port nearest to Athens. These ships
Athenians were rewarded with another could then be used to make a surprise attack
success soon afterwards when a larger force of on the Athenian port of Peiraieus, which was
77 Peloponnesian ships drove Phormio into not well guarded. Strong winds and, in
the narrow stretch of water at Rhion, hoping Thucydides' view, a lack of courage, caused
to trap them against the northern shoreline, them to abandon the idea of attacking
thus negating the greater speed and Peiraieus and to strike at the island of
35. The fighting 37
A sketch showing how the Athenian harbour at confrontation on land. Meanwhile, the
Mounychia in Peiraieus may have looked in the fourth Athenian generals Eurymedon and Sophokles
century. Early on in the Peloponnesian War a daring
were taking 40 ships to Sicily, via Corcyra.
attempt by the Spartans to attack the harbour showed
the Athenians that they needed to fortify it.The entrance They made a detour into the area of Pylos on
is narrow and there is a chain stretched across it to the western coast of the Peloponnese to
prevent unauthorised ships from getting in. (J F Coates) attempt a scheme devised by the general-elect
Demosthenes who was travelling with them.
Salamis instead. They captured three Demosthenes' plan was to turn Pylos into
Athenian ships on the north of the island a fortified post for a detachment of the
and did a considerable amount of damage Messenian exiles from Naupaktos to use as a
before the arrival of an Athenian fleet and base for conducting raids against
concerns over the state of their ships Peloponnesian territory. From Pylos they
forced them to withdraw. The episode had could easily penetrate Messenia and, with
demonstrated that Athenian territory was their ability to speak the local dialect, their
also vulnerable to seaborne attack and steps knowledge of the land and their kinship
were taken to close off the harbour entrances with the Messenians, they could stir up
at Peiraieus and station more ships on guard trouble for the Spartans in their own back
duty in the future. yard. Demosthenes seems to have had some
difficulty convincing the two current
generals to carry out his plan, but eventually
Spartan defeat at Pylos an improvised set of fortifications was built
and Demosthenes was left there with five
In the spring of 425 the Peloponnesian army, ships while the rest of the fleet sailed on
led by the young Spartan king Agis, again towards Corcyra.
invaded Attika. They settled down to spend Initially the Spartans, did not see any
the summer devastating as much Athenian serious threat from this Athenian foothold
territory as possible and to try, once more, to on their territory, but when King Agis and
force the Athenians into a major his advisers heard the news they abandoned
36. 38 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
This bronze hoplites helmet is in the style known as their invasion of Attika and hurried to
Corinthian. Such helmets afforded good protection to the Pylos, gathering forces for a strike against
wearer, but they severely restricted vision and hearing,
Demosthenes. A Peloponnesian fleet that
making the hoplites heavily dependent on the coherence of
their formation. This example is inscribed with the name had been on its way to Corcyra was recalled
Dendas, perhaps the person who dedicated it in a sanctuary. to assist them, Demosthenes also sent for
Many men preferred simpler helmets such as those seen in help and the Athenian fleet turned round at
the illustration on page 86. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
Zakynthos and headed back to Pylos.
37. The fighting 39
This fifth-century sculpture from the temple of Aphaia on Spartan attacks. The Spartans' efforts took on a
Aigina shows the hero Herakles. recognisable by his lionskin frantic edge, with one of their trireme
headress. He is in the act of shooting an arrow from a commanders, Brasidas, putting his ship and
kneeling position. Archers were often carried on warships
his own life at risk by running his ship
and would target the officers, steersmen, sailors and
soldiers on enemy ships. (Ancient Art and Architecture) aground inside the area fortified by the
Athenians and trying to force his way onto the
The Spartans were determined to remove land. He was badly wounded and lost his
the enemy before their reinforcements could shield, but his bravery earned him much
arrive. They attacked the Athenian position praise. The next day the Athenian fleet arrived,
from the land and the sea for two days. They now numbering 50 vessels with the addition
landed a small force of hoplites on the island of ships from Naupaktos and four allied
of Sphakteria as part of the attempt to triremes from Chios.
blockade the fort by land and sea. The The character of the confrontation changed
Spartans were wary of the advantage that the dramatically once the Athenians had a strong
Athenians had over them in naval naval force at their disposal. They easily drove
confrontations, and seem to have decided that the 43 Spartan ships away from the
occupying the island would restrict Athenian promontory of Pylos and onto the beaches in
access to the bay behind and prevent them the bay, disabling some and capturing others.
from putting forces in the rear of the Spartans' The blockade of the fort was lifted and the
own positions on land. Demosthenes beached Spartans were left camped on the mainland
his few remaining ships and deployed their watching helplessly as the Athenians sailed
crews as makeshift infantry. He and his men around Sphakteria unopposed. The most
held out resolutely against almost continuous unfortunate result of this reversal of fortune
38. 40 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War
was that 420 Peloponnesian hoplites and More Athenian forces came to Pylos and a
their Helot attendants were left stranded on stalemate ensued. The conditions for the
the island. Athenians were not easy, as despite being
The Spartans immediately sent a masters of the sea, they did not control
delegation from the gerousia and the much of the coastline. Their fort was still
ephorate to assess the situation. Their under attack from the Spartan army on the
appraisal was an honest but bleak one. The mainland and Demosthenes had less than
situation was untenable for the men on 1,000 soldiers to defend it. The Spartans
Sphakteria because they could not be rescued offered cash rewards to anyone who was
and the Athenians could put their own prepared to dodge the Athenian triremes
soldiers on the island and eventually patrolling around the island and bring food
overwhelm them with sheer numbers. Even to the men there, either by swimming or in
that might not be necessary, however, as small boats. Enough Helots and Messenian
there was virtually no food on the island, so fishermen volunteered to maintain the food
they might easily be starved into surrender. supply. Eventually the Athenians began to
The official delegation went straight to the feel the difficulty of supplying their own
Athenians and negotiated a truce, which forces at such a great distance and in a
allowed them to get provisions to their men confined space with nowhere to beach their
and halted Athenian attacks. In return the ships in safety.
Spartans surrendered what remained of their Back in Athens, Kleon's arrogant handling
fleet and all the other triremes that they had of the Spartan peace envoys put the onus on
back in Lakonia (a total of 60 ships), and him to find a solution. He tried to deflect it
sent an embassy to Athens to discuss a full by blaming the lack of progress on the board
peace treaty. of generals. They should make a determined
These negotiations could have ended the assault on the island and kill or capture the
war, but instead they came to nothing. The men there, he said. He would have done so
Spartan envoys were prepared to make huge already, if he were a general. One of the
concessions to recover their men, but they current generals, Nikias, took him at his
refused to do so in front of a full session of word and invited him to select whatever
the Athenian Assembly, which was what the forces he required and show them how to do
Athenians insisted upon. Such a public it. The mass of citizens cheered this
display of weakness and humility was simply suggestion and shouted for Kleon to take up
too much for the proud Spartans, accustomed the challenge. Kleon was trapped by the kind
as they were to having their most important of crowd-pleasing rhetoric that he normally
decisions settled by a small group of senior used against others. He obtained a mixed
citizens in a private meeting. There was a force of tough, experienced hoplites from the
substantial body of opinion in Athens that Athenian citizen colonies of Lemnos and
favoured coming to terms now, but the more Imbros, and plenty of light infantry, both
belligerent and arrogant feelings of Kleon and peltasts (light infantryman armed with
his supporters carried the day. When Kleon javelins) and archers. He promised to destroy
accused them of lacking sincerity the or capture the Spartans in 20 days.
Spartans gave up and returned home. The
truce was over and the Spartans requested the
return of their ships, but the Athenians held The most amazing thing
on to them claiming that some of the details
of the agreement had not been adhered to by Kleon's boast that he could resolve the
the Spartans. Thus they were able to bring an situation in 20 days, coming from a man
end to Spartan naval activity for the time who had never previously held any military
being and increase the pressure on the men command, was probably a piece of sheer
trapped on Sphakteria. arrogance. However, he did have enough
39. The fighting 41
This photo shows the bronze covering of a hoplite shield; sentries completely by surprise. Once
the wooden core has long perished. It is pierced with letters bridgeheads were established they flooded
that tell us it was booty taken from the Spartans at Pylos in
the island with the Messenians from the fort
425 by the AtheniansThe taking and dedicating of trophies
was a key part of Greek warfare.They served as physical
at Pylos, plus archers, peltasts and several
reminders of a god-given victory over the enemy (American thousand ordinary rowers from the fleet,
School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations) whose only offensive weapons were sling
stones and rocks. By holding the hoplites
understanding of warfare to choose back from a direct engagement with the
Demosthenes, the energetic commander superior Spartan troops, and using the rest of
whose plan had started the whole affair, as his force to harry the enemy with missiles
his chief adviser. Between them they came Demosthenes forced the Spartans to retreat
up with a tactically sound approach. They rather than be gradually picked off where
landed 800 hoplites on the island from both they stood. If they could have achieved
sides at dawn and caught the weary Spartan close-quarter combat with the enemy the