This library research project requires students to write a paper presenting reviews of a minimum of 10 psychology journal articles. For each article, students must include a 50-word review as well as full bibliographic information and details on how to locate the article in the TCU library. Students will select their topic from a list provided in class and use the September 10 class period to work on the project.

1. • Library Research Project
• This project will entail library research of topics in
psychology provided by the Instructor. A paper will be
written presenting reviews of a minimum of ten journal
articles from separate journals found in the TCU library
of a minimum of 50 words each. In addition to each
review, the paper will note the bibliographic reference
for each article and a description of the location in the
TCU library where each can be found, noting the floor,
topical section, library reference number and other
location description. If you happen to get a duplicate
topic they should not be the same content or citations.
A list of possible topics will be available in class for you
to pick from. Please use September 10 class period for
your work so we will not meet on that day.
• Posted on elearning: 8/30/12

2. Textbook student resources
http://www.psypress.com/books/text
books/resources/#intropsyc

3. CHAPTER 4
Psychology of Emotion
Theories of Emotion
Stress
Coping with Stress

4. WHAT IS EMOTION
Distinct, integrated psychophysiological
response systems containing three
differentiable response systems:
1. A prototypic form of
expression, typically facial
2. A pattern of consistent autonomic
changes
3. A distinct subjective feeling state

5. FACIAL RECOGNITION
• Research: six emotional facial expressions
• Happiness, surprise, anger, sadness, fear and
disgust
• Ekman et al. (1972) then carried out cross-
cultural research on facial expressions in 10
different countries.
– The findings were very similar across all
cultures, suggesting the six emotions
identified are universal.
– Nearly all the studies reviewed by Ekman et
al. (1972) were carried out in Western
societies and are thus limited in scope.

6. TWO DIMENSIONAL MODEL
• Russell (e.g., Barrett & Russell, 1998) proposed a
two-dimensional model of emotion more in line
with our intuitions.
• According to this model, there are two
independent dimensions: (1) pleasure–misery;
and (2) arousal–sleep.
• The first dimension concerns the type of
emotional experience (i.e., pleasurable or
displeasurable) and the second dimension
concerns its intensity.

7. The two-dimensional framework for emotion showing the two
dimensions of pleasure–misery and arousal–sleep (Barrett &
Russell, 1998) and the two dimensions of Positive Affect and
Negative Affect (Watson & Tellegen, 1985). Based on Barrett
and Russell (1998).

8. USEFULNESS OF EMOTIONS
• Anxiety – selective attention to threat & initiate
fight or flight response
• Anxiety = lower accidental death rate
• Depression – increase focus on accurate analysis &
solution of problems you face
• Depression=increase in support group
• The brain serves a special functioning in managing
emotions and the resulting behavior
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QXI_BxlY7M&f
eature=player_embedded

9. THEORIES OF EMOTION
James-Lange Theory
• The first major theory of emotion was put forward
independently by William James in the United States
and Carl Lange in Denmark in the mid-1880s.
• According to this theory, three successive stages are
involved in producing emotion:
– There is an emotional stimulus (e.g., a car comes rapidly towards you as you cross the
road).
– This produces bodily changes (e.g., arousal in the autonomic nervous system).
– Feedback from the bodily changes leads to the experience of emotion (e.g., fear or
anxiety).
Studies have found that bodily feedback is not essential
for emotion to be experienced

10. James–Lange Theory
Three successive stages:

11. Arousal-Interpretation Theory
Schachter and Singer (1962)
– Two factors are essential for emotions to be
experienced:
• High physiological arousal
• An emotional interpretation of that arousal
– No emotion will be experienced if either is missing.
Important in the theory’s new emphasis on cognition in
the study of emotion
Much of the theory found to be inconsistent, unclear and
in some case, wrong

12. • Appraisal Theory
• According to Lazarus (1982, 1991), emotional experience is
crucially dependent on cognitive appraisal (the interpretation of
the current situation).
• Cognitive appraisal can be subdivided into three more specific
forms of appraisal:
– Primary appraisal: The situation is perceived as being positive, stressful,
or irrelevant to wellbeing.
– Secondary appraisal: Account is taken of the resources available to the
individual to cope with the situation.
– Re-appraisal: The stimulus situation and coping strategies are monitored,
with the primary and secondary appraisal being modified if necessary.
Smith & Kirby – Process appraisal: 2 types of
appraisal: Reasoning and Associative Processing

13. • Smith and Lazarus (1993) theory accounted for our
experience of different emotions.
• They argued that there are six appraisal components:
– Primary: Motivational relevance—related to personal
commitments?
– Primary: Motivational congruence—consistent with the
individual’s goals?
– Secondary: Accountability—who deserves the credit or
blame?
– Secondary: Problem-focused coping potential—how can
the situation be resolved?
– Secondary: Emotion-focused coping potential—can the
situation be handled psychologically?
– Secondary: Future expectancy—how likely is it the
situation will change?
• Different emotional states can be distinguished on the basis of
which appraisal components are involved.

14. • The main limitation with earlier versions of appraisal
theory is that little was said about the processes involved
in appraisal.
• Smith and Kirby (2001) distinguished between two types
of appraisal processes:
– Reasoning: this involves a controlled and deliberate
thinking process that takes time and requires
attentional resources.
– Associative processing: this involves rapid activation
of relevant information stored in memory and occurs
rapidly and automatically.
• Appraisal detectors monitor appraisal information from
the reasoning and associative processes.
• This appraisal information determines the individual’s
emotional experience.

15. • Appraisal theories oversimplify appraisal and
the experience of emotion, which are more
flexible and variable than assumed by the
theories
• Appraisal theories minimize or negate the
“social context” in which emotion is typically
experienced.
• The complexity of the brain and its processes
make clear and distinct theories difficult
• Is emotion physiological or cognitive?
• Can emotion occur without arousal or
awareness?

16. MULTI LEVEL (SPAARS) APPROACH
• Power and Dalgleish (1997):
– Schematic Propositional Associative and
Analogical Representational Systems
(SPAARS):
• Analogical system – Basic sensory info
• Propositional system- Emotion free data
• Schematic system- Creation of models
• Associative system- Association of info &
automatically elicited emotions

17. The SPAARS Approach
x

18. STRESS
“…the psychological & physical strain or
tension generated by
physical, emotional, social, economic, or
occupational circumstances, events or
experiences that are difficult to manage
or endure.”
“…the body's reaction to a change that
requires a physical, mental or emotional
adjustment or response.”

19. • First to use the term in a biological
context, Hans Selye defined stress as "the
non-specific response of the body to any
demand placed upon it.“
• Stress is a subjective experience – eyes of the
beholder
There are four major kinds of effects from stress:
1. physiological
2. emotional
3. cognitive
4. behavioral

20. • Stress involves an immediate shock
response followed by a countershock
response.
• The first (shock) response depends
mainly on the sympathetic adrenal
medullary system (SAM), whereas
the second or countershock response
involves the hypothalamic pituitary–
adrenocortical axis (HPA).

21. Stress Shock Response

23. STRESS AND ILLNESS
• Stress has been linked with numerous physical
illnesses, including headaches, infectious
disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, asthma, and
rheumatoid arthritis (Curtis, 2000).
• It has also been linked with various mental disorders
including anxiety and depression.
• Occupational stress:
– Cartwright and Cooper (1997): occupational stress costs American
businesses more than $110 billion a year.
– Karasek (1979): lack of perceived control.
– Spector, Dwyer, and Jex (1988): low levels of perceived control were
associated with frustration, anxiety, headaches, stomach upsets, and
visits to the doctor.

24. STRESS AND ILLNESS
• Occupational stress:
– Marmot et al. (1997) and Bosma, Stanfeld, and
Marmot (1998) reported workers on the lowest
employment grades were FOUR times more likely
to die of a heart attack than those on the most
senior grade. Lack of perceived control.
– They were also more likely to suffer from cancer,
strokes, and gastrointestinal disorders.

25. LIFE EVENTS AND HASSLES
• Life events are often major negative events or occurrences
(e.g., death of a loved one) that cause high levels of
stress, although some life events are relatively minor.
• Hassles are the minor challenges and interruptions
(e.g., arguing with a friend) of everyday life.
– On average, people experience at least one hassle on
about 40% of the days in each week (Almeida, 2005).
• Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale to assess life events. -- useful to screen for
current level of stress being experienced

26. VULNERABILITY TO STRESS
• Type A Behavior Pattern:
– Friedman and Rosenman (1959): Types A and B.
– Type A individuals are hard-driving, competitive, and aggressive
individuals
– Type B individuals are more relaxed and laid-back.
– Rosenman et al. (1975) found of nearly 3200 men having no symptoms
of coronary heart disease at the outset of the study, Type As were
nearly twice as likely as Type Bs to have developed coronary heart
disease over the following 8–12 years.
– Findings from studies after have been inconsistent.

27. • Type D personality:
– Consists of a combination of high negative
affectivity plus high social inhibition (inhibited
behavior in social situations to avoid disapproval).
– Type D personality was much more common
among hypertension patients (54%) and coronary
patients (27%) than it was among people from the
general population (19%).
– Type D individuals are also at much greater risk
than non-Type D ones for post-traumatic
stress, reduced longevity, and development of
cancer.

28. • Type A individuals report high levels of stress, as do those high in negative
affectivity or with Type D personality.
• Type A individuals are generally slightly more likely than Type Bs to
develop coronary heart disease.
• Type D individuals are more susceptible than others to various diseases.
The evidence suggests that the Type D personality may be the personality
type most associated with stress-related diseases.
• Negative affectivity is only slightly associated with actual physical illness.
• Some evidence suggests that the hostility component of Type A
personality is most associated with coronary heart disease, but this has
not been clearly established.

29. • Stress produces various changes in the immune system and increases
the likelihood of developing certain physical diseases.
• We now have a fairly clear picture of the effects of different kinds of
stressor on the immune system.
• Stress typically has fairly modest effects on the functioning of the
immune system.
• However, we still don’t know the extent to which the effects of stress
on susceptibility to disease depends on changes within the immune
system.

30. • The Multidimensional Coping Inventory (Endler &
Parker, 1990) is a fairly representative self-report
questionnaire, assessing three major coping strategies:
– Task-oriented strategy: This involves obtaining
information about the stressful situation and alternative
courses of action and their probable outcome. It also
involves deciding on priorities and dealing directly with the
stressful situation.
– Emotion-oriented strategy: This can involve efforts to
maintain hope and to control one’s emotions. It can also
involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or
deciding that nothing can be done to change things.
– Avoidance-oriented strategy: This involves denying or
minimizing the seriousness of the situation. It also involves
conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their
replacement by self-protective thoughts.

31. • Coping strategies are important in determining
the effects of stressful events on an individual’s
mental and physical state.
• There is reasonable agreement on the major
coping strategies (e.g., task-oriented; avoidance-
oriented).
• The coping strategies used by individuals in their
actual behavior may not be the same as the
coping strategies they claim to use on self-report
questionnaires.
• Questionnaires often focus on individuals’
preferred coping strategies in a very general way.
Such a broad assessment may not allow us to
predict how individuals will respond to a specific
stressor.

32. FAMILIES OF COPING
• Problem solving: Includes various activities including
instrumental action; direct action; decision making;
and planning.
• Support seeking: Includes comfort seeking; help
seeking, and spiritual support.
• Escape: Includes avoidance; disengagement; and
denial
• Distraction: Includes acceptance and engaging in
alternative pleasurable activities (e.g., exercise;
reading).
• Positive cognitive restructuring: Includes positive
thinking and self-encouragement.
• Rumination: Includes intrusive thoughts; negative
thinking, self-blame; and worry.

33. FAMILIES OF COPING
Helplessness: Includes inaction; passivity;
giving up; and pessimism.
Social withdrawal: Includes social isolation;
avoiding others; and emotional withdrawal.
Emotional regulation: Includes emotional
expression; emotional control; and
relaxation.