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An Introduction To Metabolism,[object Object]
Metabolism,[object Object],The totality of an organism’s chemical processes.,[object Object],Concerned with managing the material and energy resources of the cell.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Catabolic Pathways,[object Object],Pathways that break down complex molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy.,[object Object],Example: Respiration,[object Object]
Anabolic Pathways,[object Object],Pathways that consume energy, building complex molecules from smaller ones.,[object Object],Example: Photosynthesis,[object Object]
Energy ,[object Object],Ability to do work.,[object Object],The ability to rearrange a collection of matter.,[object Object],Forms of energy:,[object Object],Kinetic,[object Object],Potential,[object Object],Activation,[object Object]
Kinetic Energy,[object Object],Energy of action or motion.,[object Object]
Potential Energy,[object Object],Stored energy or the capacity to do work.,[object Object]
Activation Energy,[object Object],Energy needed to convert potential energy into kinetic energy.,[object Object],Activation Energy,[object Object],Potential Energy,[object Object]
Energy Transformation,[object Object],Governed by the Laws of Thermodynamics.,[object Object]
1st Law of Thermodynamics,[object Object],Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.,[object Object],Also known as the law of Conservation of Energy.,[object Object]
2nd Law of Thermodynamics,[object Object],Each energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.,[object Object]
Entropy,[object Object],Measure of disorder.,[object Object]
Free Energy,[object Object],The portion of a system's energy that can perform work.,[object Object]
Chemical Reactions ,[object Object],Are the source of energy for living systems.,[object Object]
Cell - Types of Work,[object Object],Mechanical - muscle contractions,[object Object],Transport - pumping across membranes,[object Object],Chemical - making polymers,[object Object]
ATP,[object Object],Adenosine Triphosphate,[object Object],Made of:,[object Object],   - Adenine (nitrogenous base),[object Object],   - Ribose (pentose sugar),[object Object],   - 3 phosphate groups,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Adenine,[object Object],Phosphates,[object Object],Ribose,[object Object]
Key to ATP,[object Object],Is in the three phosphate groups.,[object Object],Negative charges repel each other and makes the phosphates unstable.,[object Object]
ATP,[object Object],Works by energizing other molecules by transferring phosphate groups.,[object Object]
ATP vs Food,[object Object],ATP: ,[object Object],Renewable energy resource.,[object Object],Unstable bonds,[object Object],Food:,[object Object],Long term energy storage,[object Object], Stable bonds,[object Object]
ATP Cycle,[object Object]
ATP in Cells,[object Object],A cell's ATP content is recycled every minute.,[object Object],Humans use close to their body weight in ATP daily.,[object Object],No ATP production equals quick death.,[object Object]
Enzymes,[object Object],Biological catalysts made of protein.,[object Object],Cause the rate of a chemical reaction to increase.,[object Object]
Chemical Reaction,[object Object],AB + CD         AC + BD,[object Object],AB and CD are “reactants”,[object Object],AC and BD are “products”,[object Object]
Enzymes,[object Object],Lower the activation energy for a chemical reaction to take place.,[object Object]
Enzyme Terms,[object Object],Substrate - the material and enzyme works on.,[object Object],Enzyme names: Ex. Sucrase,[object Object],   - ase  name of an enzyme,[object Object],   1st part tells what the substrate is. (Sucrose),[object Object]
Enzyme Name,[object Object],Some older known enzymes don't fit this naming pattern.,[object Object],Examples: pepsin, trypsin,[object Object]
Active Site,[object Object],The area of an enzyme that binds to the substrate.,[object Object],Structure is designed to fit the molecular shape of the substrate.,[object Object],Therefore, each enzyme is substrate specific.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Enzymes ,[object Object],Usually specific to one  substrate. ,[object Object],Each chemical reaction in a cell requires its own enzyme.,[object Object]
Factors that Affect Enzymes,[object Object],Environment,[object Object],Cofactors,[object Object],Coenzymes,[object Object],Inhibitors,[object Object],Allosteric Sites,[object Object]
Environment,[object Object],Factors that change protein structure will affect an enzyme.,[object Object],Examples:,[object Object],pH shifts,[object Object],temperature,[object Object],salt concentrations,[object Object]
Enzyme Inhibitors,[object Object],Competitive - mimic the substrate and bind to the active site.,[object Object],Noncompetitive - bind to some other part of the enzyme.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Control of Metabolism,[object Object],Is necessary if life is to function.,[object Object],Controlled by switching enzyme activity "off" or "on” or separating the enzymes in time or space.,[object Object]
Process of Cellular Respiration,[object Object]
Process of Cellular Respiration,[object Object],The process by which food molecules are broken down to release energy is respiration.,[object Object],Respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration.,[object Object],Respiration that occurs without oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.,[object Object],The energy payoff is much greater when molecules are broken down aerobically.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Glycolysis,[object Object],1st step of respiration,[object Object],Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose (6-carbon molecule to pyruvic acid (3-carbon molecule).,[object Object],Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and is anaerobic.,[object Object],Glycolosis produces hydrogen ions and electrons, which combine with carrier ions called NAD+ (nicotanamidedinucleotide) to form NADH.,[object Object],End product is 2 ATP’s,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Breakdown of Pyruvic Acid,[object Object],The 2nd step that takes place in respiration is the breakdown of pyruvic acid, and aerobic process.,[object Object],Pyruvic acid (3-carbon molecule) is changed to acetic acid (2-carbon molecule).  The carbon that comes off makes CO2.  Acetic acid combines with a substance called coenzyme A (CoA), forming acetyl-CoA.,[object Object],This process takes place in the mitochondria.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Citric Acid Cycle,[object Object],The 3rd step of aerobic respiration is the citric acid cycle.,[object Object],Acetyl-CoA combines with a 4-carbon molecule to form a 6-carbon molecule, citric acid.  Citric acid is broken down 1st to a 5-carbon molecule and then to a 4-carbon molecule, releasing CO2 at each step.,[object Object],This cycle of chemical reactions produces more ATP and releases additional electrons.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Electron Transport Chain,[object Object],The 4th part of aerobic respiration is the electron transport chain (ETC).,[object Object],The ETC is a series of molecules along which electrons are transferred, releasing energy.,[object Object],Carrier molecules bring the electrons released during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to the ETC.,[object Object]
ETC (con’t),[object Object],The molecules of the ETC are located on the inner membranes of the mitochondria.,[object Object],This is an aerobic process, because oxygen combines with two hydrogen ions to produce with water.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
Cell Respiration
What happens if no oxygen is present?,[object Object],If the final electron acceptor, oxygen, is used up, the chain becomes jammed.  The reactions of the ETC can’t take place without oxygen.,[object Object]
Anaerobic Respiration,[object Object]
Anaerobic Respiration ,[object Object],If oxygen isn’t present, there’s no electron acceptor to accept the electrons at the end of the ETC.,[object Object],If this occurs, then NADH accumulates.,[object Object],Once all the NAD+ has been converted to NADH, the Krebs cycle and glycolysis both stop (both need NAD+ to accept electrons).,[object Object]
Once this happens, no new ATP is produced, and the cell soon dies.  Cells have derived a method to escape dying – ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION.,[object Object],The main objective of anaerobic respiration is to replenish NAD+ so that glycolysis can proceed once again.  It occurs in the cytoplasm right along with glycolysis.,[object Object]
There are two forms of anaerobic respiration:,[object Object],Alcoholic fermentation,[object Object],Lactic acid fermentation,[object Object]
Alcoholic Fermentation,[object Object],Alcoholic fermentation occurs in plants, fungi (yeast), and bacteria.,[object Object],There are 2 steps to alcoholic fermentation:,[object Object],The conversion of pyruvic acid to acetaldehyde,[object Object],1 CO2 and 1 acetaldehyde is produced,[object Object],The conversion of acetaldehyde to ethanol,[object Object],NADH is used to drive the reaction, releasing NAD+,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
The goal of this reaction is not to produce ethanol, but it is to free the NAD+, which allows glycolysis to continue.,[object Object],The reward is 2 ATP from glycolysis for each 2 converted pyruvate.  This is better than the alternative, which is 0 ATP.,[object Object]
Lactic Acid Fermentation,[object Object],Lactic acid can occur in some bacteria and plants, but it is mostly found in animals, including humans.,[object Object],Anytime your muscle cells require energy at a faster rate than it can be supplied by aerobic respiration, they begin to carry out lactic acid fermentation.,[object Object]
There is only one step in lactic acid fermentation:,[object Object],Now, NAD+ can be used for glycolysis.,[object Object],When O2 becomes available again, lactic acid can be broken down and its store of energy can be retrieved.,[object Object],Because O2 is required to do this, lactic acid fermentation creates what is often called an oxygen debt.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Lactic Acid Fermentation,[object Object],Uses only Glycolysis.,[object Object],An incomplete oxidation - energy is still left in the products (lactic acid). ,[object Object],Does NOT require O2,[object Object],Produces ATP when O2 is not available.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Lactic Acid Fermentation,[object Object],Done by human muscle cells under oxygen debt.,[object Object],Lactic Acid is a toxin and causes soreness and stiffness in muscles.,[object Object]
Fermentation - Summary,[object Object],Way of using up NADH so Glycolysis can still run.,[object Object],Provides ATP to a cell even when O2 is absent.,[object Object]
Cell Respiration
Aerobic vs Anaerobic,[object Object],Aerobic - Rs with O2,[object Object],Anaerobic - Rs without O2,[object Object],Aerobic - All three Rs steps.,[object Object],Anaerobic - Glycolysis only.,[object Object]

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