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4. Introduction
► Amalgam : alloy that contains mercury as one of
its constituent
► Amalgam: derived from greek word
malagma= emollient
malassein= soften
► Alloy : latin word
alligare= to combine
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5. History
► 1STform of amalgam developed by
M.Taveau( 1826) in Paris.
► Crawcour brothers(1833) introduced it in
dental profession . Called Royal Mineral
Succedaneum .
► Amalgam War: 1840-1850
► Dr.G.V.Black(1896):
► ADA Specification 1 in 1929
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6. Advantages
► Durable
► High compressive
strength
► Insoluble in the fluids of
mouth
► Adaptability to walls of
preparation
► Least time consuming to
place
► Ability to corrode-
decreased microleakage
► Ability to take polish
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7. Disadvantages
► Not tooth colored
► Does not bond to tooth structure
► Lack of edge strength
► High conductivity
► Mercury toxicity
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8. Classification
► No of alloys:
1. Binary alloys– silver and tin
2. Ternary: silver , tin and copper
3. Quarternary: silver ,tin, copper, indium
► Powder particle size:
1. Micro cut
2. Fine cut
3. Coarse cut
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9. ► Based on copper content
1. Low copper: <6%Cu
2. High copper: >6% Cu
admixed: 28%
single composition- 13-30%
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11. Based on addition of noble
metals
1st generation: 3 parts silver+1 part tin
peritectic
► 2nd generation: copper is added upto 4%
► 3rd generation : silver copper eutectic alloy +
original alloy
► 4th generation : alloying of copper to silver and
tin upto 29%
► 5th generation : silver, copper ,tin, indium
► 6th generation: alloying palladium 10%,
silver62%, copper 28%--- eutectic lathecut
blended into 1st gen in ratio of 1:2
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14. Single composition
Each particle has same composition
► silver:40-60%
► Tin: 22-30%
► Copper: 13-30%
► Indium: 0-5%
► Palladium: 0-1%
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15. Functions of each ingredients
► Silver:
1. Increases strength
2. Increase setting expansion
3. Decreases flow
4. Improves color
5. Setting time decreased
6. Resist tarnish and corrosion
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16. Tin
► Advantages:
1. Decreases expansion
2. Helps in amalgamation
► Disadvantages:
1. Decreases strength
2. Setting will be slow
3. Increases flow
4. Tarnish and corrosion
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17. copper
► Advantages:
1. Increases strength and hardness
2. Decreases flow
3. Setting will be quick
► Disadvantages:
1. Increases expansion
2. Can be tarnished
3. Brittleness
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18. Zinc
► Advantages:
1. Scavenger/ de-oxidiser
2. Helps in workability
3. Quickens the setting time
4. Increases ultimate strength
► Disadvantages:
1. Increases expansion in presence of moisture
2. Diminishes edge strength
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19. Mercury
► Advantages:
1. Gives plasticity and softness
2. Binds the particles together
3. Essential for setting reaction and
hardening
► Disadvantages:
1. Mercury toxicity
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20. Selenium: Improves the biocompatability of
amalgam (Sato and Kumei-1982)
► Indium: Decreases the mercury vapour
released during mastication( Dowell and Youdelis
1992)
► Platinum: Hardens alloy and corrosion resistant
► Palladium: Hardens and whitens alloy
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21. Manufacturing of alloy
Lathecut:
Ingot: 20-25 cm long and 3-8 cm diameter
Homogenised anneal of ingot: oven 400C for 6-8 hrs
Ballmilling : to reduce size
particle treatment with acids to improve the
reactivity
Aging process towww.indiandentalacademy.com life
improve shelf
22. Spherical alloy
► Atomised: liquid alloy
into a closed chamber
filled with inert gas
► Size: 2-43 microns
► Acid treatment
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31. Single composition
► Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn+ HgCu6Sn5 +Ag2Hg3
► Core: Ag3Sn and Ag-Cu
► Matrix: Ag2Hg3
► Cu6Sn5 is present in gamma1 matrix rather
than as halo around Ag-Cu
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34. Dimensional changes
► ADA specification1:
-15Micron to + 20
microns at 37c between
5 min and 24hrs after
beginning of trituration
► Theory of dim.change:
1. Initial contraction
2. Expansion
3. Delayed contraction
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35. ► Severe contraction:
1. Microleakeage
2. Plaque accumulation
3. Secondary caries
► Excessive expansion
1. Pressure on pulp
2. Post op sensitivity
3. Protrusion of restoration
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37. Factors affecting dimensional
change
► Constituents: more gamma- more exp
tin– less exp
► Mercury: more ->expansion high
► Particle size: smaller size-> more
contraction
► Trituration:
more energy, longer time-
contraction
► Condensation: more forces contraction
► Particle shape: irregular expansion
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38. Creep
► Creep: time dependent plastic strain of
material under static load or constant
stress
► ADA specification : 3% or less
► Low copper alloys: 0.8% to 8%
► High copper alloys: 0.1%
► Factors: 1. influence of microstructures
2. manipulative variables
► High creep: more marginal detoriation
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41. Compressive strength
► Satisfactory compressive strength: 310 MPa
► After 7 days , comp strength of high copper
alloys is more than low copper alloys
► After 1hr, single composition alloy strength
is double that of other alloys
► Amalgam is weak in tension
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44. Rate of attaining strength
► Accelerated strength:
1. Decreased particle size.
2. More trituration energy
3. More condensation energy
4. Smooth and regular particles
5. Homogenisation heat treatment
6. Minimum mercury in the mix
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45. Tarnish and corrosion
► Tarnish: surface discoloration on metal or
even slight loss or alteration of the surface
finish or luster.
► Corrosion: actual detoriation of ametal by
reaction with its environment
► Active corrosion: interface between tooth
and restoration crevice corrosion
► selfsealing
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47. ► Both low and high copper corrosion
products are oxides and chlorides of tin
► In high copper amalgam: corrosion process
is limited,since n (Cu6Sn5) is least
susceptible to corrosion than gamma2
► Gold restoration when placed in contact with
an amalgam,large difference in
EMFcorrosion
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48. Other properties
Effect of moisture contamination:
► Zinc-containing amalgam contaminated by
moisture , a large expansiondelayed
expansion or secondary expansion
► H2O + Zn ZnO2 +H2 (gas)
► This hydrogen gas collects in restoration
expansion, protrusion , increased creep,
increased microleakage, corrosion, pain.
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49. Marginal adaptation
► Tendency to minimise microleakeage –self
sealing
► Due to corrosion products which seals
restoration
► Low copper alloys–> 2-3 months
► High copper alloys10-12 months
► Problems due to improper adaptation
1. Marginal detoriation
2. Accumulation of debris
3. Recurrent caries
4. Post op sensitivity
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50. Gallium alloy
► Alloy: Liquid:
Silver60%
Tin 25% Gallium 62%
copper 13% Iridium 25%
Palladium 20%
Tin 25%
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51. Gallium alloys
► Puttkammer 1928
► Comp.strength and tensile strength
comparable to amalgam
► Creep—0.09%
► Sets early polishing can be done on same
day
► They expand after mixing, better marginal
seal
► Sticks to walls of capsule.
► More costly.
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53. Copper amalgam
► Copper and mercury
► Antiseptic
► Composion: 70%Hg , 30% copper- pellet
► Heated in a spoon,then triturated
► Adv: increased hardeness,
not effected by moisture,
no creep
Disadv: discoloration and shrinkage
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54. Manipulation
1. Choice of alloy and mercury
2. Proportioning
3. Trituration
4. Mulling
5. Condensation
6. Burnishing
7. Carving
8. Finishing and polishing
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55. Choice of alloy and mercury
► Selection of alloy depend on:
setting time, particle size and shape,
composition, presence or absence of zinc.
► 90% amalgams placed are high Cu ,admixed
alloys
► Adv: no gamma2,
low creep
high early strength
good corrosion resistance
decreased marginal failure
► Zinc containing and zinc free:
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56. Proportioning of alloy and mercury
► Preferably done by weight rather than volume
► Mode of supply: powder particles, pellet
,disposable capsules, reusable capsules
► Dispensers with preweighed tablets and Hg
containers are available
► NO TOUCH :preweighed capsules are available
with alloy and Hg seperated by membrane.
► Size of mix:400,600,800 +appropriate Hg--- color
coded
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57. Contd
► Reusable capsules :1.friction fit
2. screw type—better
► Disposable capsules should not be reused
► Increasing dryness techique: 52-53% Hg
very plastic mix,
large restorations,
multiple auxillary means of
retention
► Eames technique: 48-50% Hg
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59. Trituration
► Act or rubbing
Objectives:
► Achieve workable mass
► Removes oxides from powder particles
► Pulverize pellets to particles
► Dissolve particles of powder in Hg
► Reduce particle size
► Keep gamma1 matrix crystals minimal and
evenly distribute
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60. Triturators
► 2 types: hand and mechanical
► Hand: mortar and pestle
► Mechanical: amalgamators
► Has plastic or metal capsule, metal or plastic ball
or pestle.
► Hoods.
► 3 basic movements of pestle:
centrifugal
figure 8
straight line
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61. Contd
► Coherence time: minimum mixing time required for an
amlagam to form a single coherent pellet.
► Effective trituration depends on duration and speed of
mixing.
► Duration:
► Speed:
low :3200-3400 cycles/ min
medium:3700-3800 cycles /min
high :4000-4400 cycles/min
► Spherical or irregular low copper: low speed
► High copper alloys: high speed
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64. Trituration energy
► Trituration(work) = motor speed *
time * capsule-pestle action
► Trituration Energy:
1. Speed or no. of unit movements per unit
time
2. Thrust of the movement
3. Weight of the capsule or pestle
4. Difference in size between pestle and
capsule
5. Time www.indiandentalacademy.com
65. Mulling
► Continuation of trituration
► Provides homogenicity to the mix
► 2 ways:
1. Mix is enveloped in dry piece of rubberdam and
rubbed betweem 1st finger and thumb.
2. After trituration,pestle is removedfrom capsule
and mix is triturated for 2-3 sec.
► This assures cleaning of capsule walls of
remnants of mix and developing a single
coherent mix
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66. Type of mix
Test for correct mix:
Normal mix:
May be warm
Smooth and soft
Overtrituration:
Alloy will be hot
Hard to remove from the
capsule
Shiny wet and soft
Undertrituration
1. Alloy will be dry
2. Will crumble if dropped from
approximately 30cm
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68. condensation
► Continuation of trituration process
► Purpose:
1. Squeezes unreacted Hg out of increments
2. This Hg squeezed to surface binds further
sucessive increments
3. Forces used brings stronger phase together
boosting final strength
4. Adapts plastic mix to the walls of preparation
5. Decreases no. of voids
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69. Condensation
► Should start immediately after trituration
► 3-3 ½ min
► Further condensation causes cracks
► 3 ways: 1. hand condensation
2. mechanical: a. vibratory
b. impact
3. ultrasonic
► Pressure inversely proportional to square of
surface area
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72. Round condensors
► 3 instruments of diameter 15,25,35
► Angle 10 degrees to shaft
► Nibs 7mm long
► 15-25 diameter: compressing amalgam in
small pits
► 35 diameter: final heavy pressure in
occlusal surface of molars
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76. condensation
► Face or nib should be flat or smooth
► Atleast 6 pounds should be used
► Amalgam is inserted into cavity in small
increments and condensed with smaller
instruments.
► Minimises voids and adapts to smaller
details
► Near surface, larger consensors are used.
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77. Nonspherical alloys
► Force applied at 45deg
to walls and floor
► Next increment at 90
deg to previous one
► Centre to periphery
condensation
► Excess Hg which
comes to surface is
excavated and
discarded.
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78. Spherical alloys
► Large increments
► Largest condensor that
will fit the cavity, to
prevent lateral escape
of spherical part
► Particles have
tendency to roll over
► Less energy than
nonspherical
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79. Final appearance
Concave amalgam surface should face
condensor indicating proper angulation and
application of forces
Condensed increment should not be
indentented
by further cond. force showing a coherent
mass
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80. Blotting mix
► An overdried amalgam mix is condensed
heavily on the restoration using large
condensors
► Blots excess Hg from critical marginal and
surface area of restoration
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81. Burnishing or surfacing
► Process of rubbing, usually performed to make a surface
shiny
► Light strokes, from amalgam to tooth surface
► Objectives:
1. Dec size and no. of voids on critical areas and margins
2. Brings excess Hg to surface
3. Adapts amalgam to cavosurface anatomy
► Precarve and post carve burnishing
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83. carving
► Anatomical sculpting of amalgam.
► Begins immediately after condensation and precarve
burnishing
► Objectives:
1. Produce restoration with no under hangs
2. Proper physiological contours and contacts
3. Adequate and compatible marginal ridges
4. Physiological embrasures
5. Functional non interfering occlusal anatomy
6. Enhance periodontal health and integrity
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84. Carving - steps
► Initial carving– discoid carver removes extra
bulk
► Accessible embrasures : sharp explorer or lateral
edge of hollenback carver
► Creating triangular fossa: discoid /cleoid
This coupled with previous procedure will erect
marginal ridges
► Margination: discoid /hollenback removes
marginal flash,
from tooth to amalgam
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86. Contd
► Facial and lingual grooves: hollenback, chisel,
cleoid /discoid
► Cusp ridges and inclined planes: hollenback
placed concurrently on amalgam and adjacent
tooth surface ,lateral movement with intact tooth
as guide
► Anatomic grooves: anatomic burnisher
► Post carve burnishing : light forces
not done in fast setting amalgams
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89. Finishing and polishing
► Finishing: process which continues the carving
objectives, removes flash and overhangs ,
corrects minimal underhangs
Done at placement appointment
Polishing: smoothing the surface to a point of high
gloss or lusture.
Creates corrosion resistant layer by removing
scratches & irregular surface
After 24hrs preferably
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90. objectives
1. Conversion of superficial amalgam into
relatively inert layer galvanically
2. Removal of superficial scratches and
irregularities
3. Minimises concentration cell corrosion
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91. contd
► Gross smoothening: finishing burs
► Polishing agents: Tinoxide, Zincoxide ,PPT chalk
► Polishing convex surfaces like facial ,lingual
proximal: progressive finer disks, abrasive
impregnated cups
► Concave surfaces : Abr impregnated rubber points
► Contact areas and gingival embrasures: linen
polishing strips or dental tape
► Abundance of air-coolant and intermittent contact
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101. Defective cavity preparation
► Insufficient occlusal extension
► Under extension of proximal box
► Over extended cavity preparation
► Cavity depth
► Floor
► No butt joint
► Fracture of isthmus
► Sharp axiopulpal line angle
► Incomplete removal of caries
► Hyperemia of pulp
► Additional retentive forms to be in dentin
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102. Defective amalgam manipulation
► Improper condensation
► Incorrect mercury alloy ratio
► Contamination
► Defective finishing and polishing
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103. Post operative pain
► High points
► Delayed expansion
► Inadequate pulp protection
► Continuous leakage around filling
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104. Finishing and polishing
► Overcarving
► Failure to polish
► Temperatures greater than 65c mercury
is released from amalgam
► Amalgam which have greater tendency for
tarnish and corrosion
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105. Amalgam bonding
► Amalgam is hydrophobic while enamel and
dentin are hydrophilic.
► Wetting agent should have both the
properties
► 4-methyloxy ethyl trimellitic anhydride
► Thick layers of bonding agents(10-50
microns) are applied about 8-10 times
► Amalgam bond, scotch bond MP, All Bond
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106. Bonding interface
► Tag formation
► Chemical binding to the inorganic or org
components of dentin
► Formation of hybrid layer of reinforced
dentin
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107. Advantages
► Dentin sealing
► Resistance and retention form increased
► Improves marginal seal
► Use of retention pins eliminated
► Microleakeage ,recurrent caries,
postoperative sensitivity reduced
► Cavity can be made conservatively
► Cost effective for extensively carious tooth
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108. Limitations
► Technique sensitive
► Bond strength is reduced after some years
► Cost of bonded amalgam is more than
nonbonded
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109. Gallium alloy
► Alloy: Liquid:
Silver60%
Tin 25% Gallium 62%
copper 13% Iridium 25%
Palladium 20%
Tin 25%
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110. Gallium alloys
► Puttkammer 1928
► Comp.strength and tensile strength
comparable to amalgam
► Creep—0.09%
► Sets early polishing can be done on same
day
► They expand after mixing, better marginal
seal
► Sticks to walls of capsule.
► More costly.
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