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Copper saves more
money in the long run
There is a capital investment that can repay
many times its original value over the next 20
years. And at the same time, improve equipment
reliability, reduce downtime and repair costs, and
result in lower releases of carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere.

The formula is straightforward: install high efficiency
motors having the highest electrical energy
efficiency commensurate with your needs.

High efficiency motors pile up savings worth many
times their purchase cost for as long as they remain
in service.
Understanding                                             or its equivalent,
                                                          Efficiency, % = Watts (Input ) - Watts (Losses) x 100
Electrical Efficiency                                     			                   Watts (Input)
                                                          “Losses” stands for all the energy “fees” the motor
Electric motors are simply devices that convert           charges in order to make its electrical-to-mechanical
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Like all        energy conversion. Their magnitude varies from
electromechanical equipment, motors consume               motor to motor and can even vary among motors of
some “extra” energy in order to make the conversion.      the same make, type and size. In general, standard
Efficiency is a measure of how much total energy a        motors have higher losses than HEMs.
motor uses in relation to the rated power delivered
to the shaft.                                             Types of Losses

A motor’s nameplate rating is based on output             Energy losses in electric motors fall into four
horsepower, which is fixed for continuous operation       categories:
at full load. The amount of input power needed to         •	 Power losses
produce rated horsepower will vary from motor to          •	 Magnetic core losses
motor, with high-efficiency motors (HEM) requiring less   •	 Friction and windage losses, and
input wattage than less-efficient models to produce       •	 Stray load losses.
the same output. Electrical energy input is measured
in watts, while output is given in horsepower. (This      Power losses and stray load losses appear only
convention applies in the USA; output power for           when the motor is operating under load. They are
motors manufactured in other countries may be             therefore more important than magnetic core losses
stated in watts or kilowatts.) One horsepower is          and friction and windage losses, which are present
equivalent to 746 watts.                                  even under no-load conditions.

There are several ways to express motor efficiency,       Power losses, also called I²R losses, are the most
but the basic concept and the numerical results are       important of the four categories and can account for
the same. For example:                                    more than one-half of a motor’s total losses. Power
Efficiency, % = 746 x Horsepower (output) x 100           losses appear as heat generated by resistance
			                   Watts (input)                       to current flowing in the stator windings and rotor
                                                          conductor bars and end rings.
Efficiency, % = Watts (output) x 100
		               Watts (input)                            Stator losses make up about 66% of power losses, and
                                                          it is here that motor manufacturers have achieved
The ratio describes efficiency in terms of what can
                                                          significant gains in efficiency. Since increasing
be observed from outside the motor, but it does
                                                          the mass of stator windings lowers their electrical
not say anything inside that makes one motor more
                                                          resistance (and therefore reduces I²R losses), HEMs
or less efficient than another. For example, we can
                                                          typically contain about 20% more copper than
rewrite the equation as:
                                                          standard models of equivalent size and rating.
Efficiency, % = 	      Watts (output) 	      x 100
		             Watts (output) + Watts (Losses)
Rotor losses, another form of power losses, are also      High electrical conductivity
called slip losses because they are largely (but not
entirely) dependent on the degree of slip the motor       Conductivity is an important characteristic of the
displays. Slip is the difference in rpm between the       rotor. Conductor bars in large motors are normally
rotational speed of the magnetic field and the            made from high-conductivity copper. Conductor
actual rpm of the rotor and shaft at a given load.        bars in small-to-intermediate size motors, up to
S = Ns - N                                                about 200 hp, depending on manufacturer, are in
 	       Ns                                               the form of a die-cast aluminum “squirrel cage” that
Where “S” is “slip”, “N” is “output speed under load”     gives these motors their common name. Increasing
and “Ns” “synchronous (no-load) speed, rpm”.              the mass of the die-cast bars requires changes in
                                                          the slots in the rotor laminations, through which the
Rotor losses are reduced by decreasing the degree         bars are cast, and that changes the rotor’s magnetic
of slip. This is accomplished by increasing the mass      structure. Lowering rotor I²R losses in what are typically
of rotor conductors (conductor bars and end-plates)       aluminum alloy squirrel cage motors is therefore not
and/or increasing conductivity, and to a lesser           a simple task.
extent by increasing the total flux across the air gap
between rotor and stator.                                 Copper has higher electrical conductivity than
                                                          aluminum, and it would be an ideal conductor
Magnetic core losses arise from hysteresis effects,       bar material except for the fact that it is difficult to
eddy currents and magnetic saturation, all of which       die cast. A process to produce die-cast copper
take effect in the steel laminations. Magnetic losses     rotors has recently been developed and, when fully
can account for up to 20% of total losses. With           commercialized, it will enable the production of
proper design, use of better materials and stringent      motors with even higher efficiencies than the best
quality control, these losses can be reduced              models currently available.
considerably.
                                                          The fact that HEMs tend to have less slip (run faster)
The most effective means to reduce hysteresis and         than standard motors must be taken into account in
saturation losses is to utilize steels containing up to   certain applications.
4% silicon for the laminations in place of lower-cost
plain carbon steels. The better magnetic properties       For example, energy consumption by centrifugal
offered by silicon steels can reduce core losses by       loads such as fans and rotary compressors is
10 to 25%.                                                proportional to the cube of rotational speed. If such
                                                          loads are driven at the higher speed of a low-slip,
Reducing the laminations’ thickness also helps:           HEM directly replacing a standard motor, energy
substituting 26-ga or 29-ga steel for the 24-ga steel     consumption can actually increase. This situation
found in standard motors lowers core losses by            can sometimes be resolved by lowering rotational
between 15 and 25%. Lengthening the lamination            speed with a variable-speed drive, gears or pulleys.
stack, which reduces the flux density within the stack,   There are other parameters, such as torque or
also reduces core losses. Eddy current losses can be      starting current, that can vary among motors of
reduced by ensuring adequate insulation between           the same nominal horsepower. It is important to
laminations, thus minimizing the flow of current (and     properly engineer the application of any motor to
I²R losses) through the stack.                            the intended task.
International Copper Association Southeast Asia Ltd.
23 Middle Road, #06-01 Singapore 188933
Tel: (65) 6334 3828 Fax: (65) 6334 6221
                                                                   Why Choose High-
www.copper.org.sg

Bangkok Office
                                                                   Efficiency Motors?
United Business Center II Building,
Suite 1208, 12th Floor, 591 Sukhumvit Road                         High efficiency motors are generally made to
(Soi 33), Wattana Bangkok 10110, Thailand	                         higher manufacturing standards and tighter
Tel: (66) 2 662 3465 Fax: (66) 2 261 8615
                                                                   quality controls than the old standard motors
Jakarta Office                                                     they are meant to replace. 		
Suite #35, 43rd Floor Wisma BNI 46 Jl. Jend.
Sudirman Kav 1. Jakarta 10220, Indonesia	
                                                                   The new motors run cooler because they
Tel: (62) 21 574 8875 Fax: (62) 21 574 888                         generate less I2R heat, producing less stress
                                                                   on windings. This is generally taken to be an
Kuala Lumpur Office
1005, Block B, Level 10, Phileo Damansara 1,                       indication that the motors will last longer, and it
9 Jalan 16/11, Off Jalan Damansara 46350                           can translate in reduced downtime and lower
Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia	                                 repair costs over the life of the motor.
Tel: (60) 3 7662 3326 Fax: (60) 3 7662 3328

                                                                   There are three factors to keep in mind, whether
Copper Development Center, Australia
Suite 1, Level 7, Westfield Towers
                                                                   you’re replacing an old worn out motor or
100 William Street, Sydney NSW 2011, Australia                     specifying for a new piece:-
Tel: (61) 2 9380 2000 Fax: (61) 2 9380 2666
www.copper.com.au
                                                                   1.	 Energy-efficient motors only provide savings
                                                                       when they’re running, and the more the
International Copper Association Ltd., China                           motors run, the more energy and money
Shanghai Office
Room 2814-2824, 28/F, Shanghai Central                                 they save.
Plaza 381 Huai Hai Zhong Road, Shanghai 200020,
People’s Republic of China
Tel: (86) 21 6391 5816 Fax: (86) 21 6391 6331
                                                                   2.	 Maximum savings (and the fastest returns on
www.copper.org.cn                                                      investment) are attained in regions where
                                                                       utility rates are highest. Even so, energy-
Beijing Office
Rm. 501-504, 5/F, Canway Building,                                     efficient motors are highly recommended
66 Nan Li Shi Road Beijing 100045,                                     even in low energy-cost areas because
People’s Republic of China                                             they provide savings that justify their initial
Tel: (86) 10 6804 2450 Fax: (86) 10 6802 0990
                                                                       cost over time.
Guangzhou Office
Unit 1908,West Tower, Fortune Plaza
116-118 Tiyu Dong Road
                                                                   3.	 Select motor for its intended application.
Guangzhou, 510620, People’s Republic of China                          Every new installation should only be made
Tel: (86) 20 3893 1699 Fax: (86) 20 3893 1308                          after conducting a thorough analysis of the
                                                                       economic and technical factors involved.
International Copper Promotion Council – India
602, Omega, Hiranandani Gardens,
Powai Mumbai 400 076, India
Tel: (91) 22 6693 7989 Fax: (91) 22 6693 9282
www.copperindia.org


Japan Copper Development Association
Usagiya Building, 5F, 10-10 1-Chome,
Ueno, Taitoh-ku, Tokyo 110-0005, Japan
Tel: (81) 3 3836 8821 Fax: (81) 3 3836 8828
www.jcda.or.jp




Affiliated with the International Copper Association, Ltd. (ICA)

© 2009 Edition |
Content courtesy of Copper Development Association, U.S.
& Copper Development Association (CDA), U.K.

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Save Money with Copper

  • 1. Copper saves more money in the long run There is a capital investment that can repay many times its original value over the next 20 years. And at the same time, improve equipment reliability, reduce downtime and repair costs, and result in lower releases of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The formula is straightforward: install high efficiency motors having the highest electrical energy efficiency commensurate with your needs. High efficiency motors pile up savings worth many times their purchase cost for as long as they remain in service.
  • 2. Understanding or its equivalent, Efficiency, % = Watts (Input ) - Watts (Losses) x 100 Electrical Efficiency Watts (Input) “Losses” stands for all the energy “fees” the motor Electric motors are simply devices that convert charges in order to make its electrical-to-mechanical electrical energy into mechanical energy. Like all energy conversion. Their magnitude varies from electromechanical equipment, motors consume motor to motor and can even vary among motors of some “extra” energy in order to make the conversion. the same make, type and size. In general, standard Efficiency is a measure of how much total energy a motors have higher losses than HEMs. motor uses in relation to the rated power delivered to the shaft. Types of Losses A motor’s nameplate rating is based on output Energy losses in electric motors fall into four horsepower, which is fixed for continuous operation categories: at full load. The amount of input power needed to • Power losses produce rated horsepower will vary from motor to • Magnetic core losses motor, with high-efficiency motors (HEM) requiring less • Friction and windage losses, and input wattage than less-efficient models to produce • Stray load losses. the same output. Electrical energy input is measured in watts, while output is given in horsepower. (This Power losses and stray load losses appear only convention applies in the USA; output power for when the motor is operating under load. They are motors manufactured in other countries may be therefore more important than magnetic core losses stated in watts or kilowatts.) One horsepower is and friction and windage losses, which are present equivalent to 746 watts. even under no-load conditions. There are several ways to express motor efficiency, Power losses, also called I²R losses, are the most but the basic concept and the numerical results are important of the four categories and can account for the same. For example: more than one-half of a motor’s total losses. Power Efficiency, % = 746 x Horsepower (output) x 100 losses appear as heat generated by resistance Watts (input) to current flowing in the stator windings and rotor conductor bars and end rings. Efficiency, % = Watts (output) x 100 Watts (input) Stator losses make up about 66% of power losses, and it is here that motor manufacturers have achieved The ratio describes efficiency in terms of what can significant gains in efficiency. Since increasing be observed from outside the motor, but it does the mass of stator windings lowers their electrical not say anything inside that makes one motor more resistance (and therefore reduces I²R losses), HEMs or less efficient than another. For example, we can typically contain about 20% more copper than rewrite the equation as: standard models of equivalent size and rating. Efficiency, % = Watts (output) x 100 Watts (output) + Watts (Losses)
  • 3. Rotor losses, another form of power losses, are also High electrical conductivity called slip losses because they are largely (but not entirely) dependent on the degree of slip the motor Conductivity is an important characteristic of the displays. Slip is the difference in rpm between the rotor. Conductor bars in large motors are normally rotational speed of the magnetic field and the made from high-conductivity copper. Conductor actual rpm of the rotor and shaft at a given load. bars in small-to-intermediate size motors, up to S = Ns - N about 200 hp, depending on manufacturer, are in Ns the form of a die-cast aluminum “squirrel cage” that Where “S” is “slip”, “N” is “output speed under load” gives these motors their common name. Increasing and “Ns” “synchronous (no-load) speed, rpm”. the mass of the die-cast bars requires changes in the slots in the rotor laminations, through which the Rotor losses are reduced by decreasing the degree bars are cast, and that changes the rotor’s magnetic of slip. This is accomplished by increasing the mass structure. Lowering rotor I²R losses in what are typically of rotor conductors (conductor bars and end-plates) aluminum alloy squirrel cage motors is therefore not and/or increasing conductivity, and to a lesser a simple task. extent by increasing the total flux across the air gap between rotor and stator. Copper has higher electrical conductivity than aluminum, and it would be an ideal conductor Magnetic core losses arise from hysteresis effects, bar material except for the fact that it is difficult to eddy currents and magnetic saturation, all of which die cast. A process to produce die-cast copper take effect in the steel laminations. Magnetic losses rotors has recently been developed and, when fully can account for up to 20% of total losses. With commercialized, it will enable the production of proper design, use of better materials and stringent motors with even higher efficiencies than the best quality control, these losses can be reduced models currently available. considerably. The fact that HEMs tend to have less slip (run faster) The most effective means to reduce hysteresis and than standard motors must be taken into account in saturation losses is to utilize steels containing up to certain applications. 4% silicon for the laminations in place of lower-cost plain carbon steels. The better magnetic properties For example, energy consumption by centrifugal offered by silicon steels can reduce core losses by loads such as fans and rotary compressors is 10 to 25%. proportional to the cube of rotational speed. If such loads are driven at the higher speed of a low-slip, Reducing the laminations’ thickness also helps: HEM directly replacing a standard motor, energy substituting 26-ga or 29-ga steel for the 24-ga steel consumption can actually increase. This situation found in standard motors lowers core losses by can sometimes be resolved by lowering rotational between 15 and 25%. Lengthening the lamination speed with a variable-speed drive, gears or pulleys. stack, which reduces the flux density within the stack, There are other parameters, such as torque or also reduces core losses. Eddy current losses can be starting current, that can vary among motors of reduced by ensuring adequate insulation between the same nominal horsepower. It is important to laminations, thus minimizing the flow of current (and properly engineer the application of any motor to I²R losses) through the stack. the intended task.
  • 4. International Copper Association Southeast Asia Ltd. 23 Middle Road, #06-01 Singapore 188933 Tel: (65) 6334 3828 Fax: (65) 6334 6221 Why Choose High- www.copper.org.sg Bangkok Office Efficiency Motors? United Business Center II Building, Suite 1208, 12th Floor, 591 Sukhumvit Road High efficiency motors are generally made to (Soi 33), Wattana Bangkok 10110, Thailand higher manufacturing standards and tighter Tel: (66) 2 662 3465 Fax: (66) 2 261 8615 quality controls than the old standard motors Jakarta Office they are meant to replace. Suite #35, 43rd Floor Wisma BNI 46 Jl. Jend. Sudirman Kav 1. Jakarta 10220, Indonesia The new motors run cooler because they Tel: (62) 21 574 8875 Fax: (62) 21 574 888 generate less I2R heat, producing less stress on windings. This is generally taken to be an Kuala Lumpur Office 1005, Block B, Level 10, Phileo Damansara 1, indication that the motors will last longer, and it 9 Jalan 16/11, Off Jalan Damansara 46350 can translate in reduced downtime and lower Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia repair costs over the life of the motor. Tel: (60) 3 7662 3326 Fax: (60) 3 7662 3328 There are three factors to keep in mind, whether Copper Development Center, Australia Suite 1, Level 7, Westfield Towers you’re replacing an old worn out motor or 100 William Street, Sydney NSW 2011, Australia specifying for a new piece:- Tel: (61) 2 9380 2000 Fax: (61) 2 9380 2666 www.copper.com.au 1. Energy-efficient motors only provide savings when they’re running, and the more the International Copper Association Ltd., China motors run, the more energy and money Shanghai Office Room 2814-2824, 28/F, Shanghai Central they save. Plaza 381 Huai Hai Zhong Road, Shanghai 200020, People’s Republic of China Tel: (86) 21 6391 5816 Fax: (86) 21 6391 6331 2. Maximum savings (and the fastest returns on www.copper.org.cn investment) are attained in regions where utility rates are highest. Even so, energy- Beijing Office Rm. 501-504, 5/F, Canway Building, efficient motors are highly recommended 66 Nan Li Shi Road Beijing 100045, even in low energy-cost areas because People’s Republic of China they provide savings that justify their initial Tel: (86) 10 6804 2450 Fax: (86) 10 6802 0990 cost over time. Guangzhou Office Unit 1908,West Tower, Fortune Plaza 116-118 Tiyu Dong Road 3. Select motor for its intended application. Guangzhou, 510620, People’s Republic of China Every new installation should only be made Tel: (86) 20 3893 1699 Fax: (86) 20 3893 1308 after conducting a thorough analysis of the economic and technical factors involved. International Copper Promotion Council – India 602, Omega, Hiranandani Gardens, Powai Mumbai 400 076, India Tel: (91) 22 6693 7989 Fax: (91) 22 6693 9282 www.copperindia.org Japan Copper Development Association Usagiya Building, 5F, 10-10 1-Chome, Ueno, Taitoh-ku, Tokyo 110-0005, Japan Tel: (81) 3 3836 8821 Fax: (81) 3 3836 8828 www.jcda.or.jp Affiliated with the International Copper Association, Ltd. (ICA) © 2009 Edition | Content courtesy of Copper Development Association, U.S. & Copper Development Association (CDA), U.K.