20320140507008

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print),
ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online), Volume 5, Issue 7, July (2014), pp. 64-80 © IAEME
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY (IJCIET)
ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print)
ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online)
Volume 5, Issue 7, July (2014), pp. 64-80
© IAEME: www.iaeme.com/ijciet.asp
Journal Impact Factor (2014): 7.9290 (Calculated by GISI)
www.jifactor.com
64

MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER REUSE IN ARID REGIONS - SCOPE FOR
IRRIGATION IN MADURAI CITY
Rajendran, S.M* and Dr. Sekaran, V**
*Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Karpagam University, Coimbatore, TN, India.
**Former Principal, Raja Engineering College, Madurai, TN, India.
ABSTRACT
As water can neither be created nor destroyed, more than 80% of quantity of water used for
domestic purposes appear as wastewater. Increasing water demand due to growing population
coupled with human related activities against the constant water resources solicits attention of the
water managers to think of wastewater as a source of water across the world. Wastewater deserves
recognition as a source of irrigation water in different countries around the world. India becomes
water stress with the per capita available water dropping down below 2000 cubic metre per head per
year. Uneven distribution of water resources from north to south makes water crisis severe in the
states like Tamil Nadu. Available water is shared by different sectors and stiff competition between
sector viz: drinking and irrigation prevails. In India, the total wastewater generation from the urban
towns has been assessed as 38474 MLD. It indicates its potential for reuse in water management.
Wastewater reuse has been in practice at selected locations around the world including India.
Guidelines, clearly explaining the health associated factors, have been developed and prescribed by
the EPA, US and WHO. Sewage treatment plants are installed to treat the sewage by the government
and effluent may be used for indirect and direct reuse purposes. The forecast of the wastewater
generation from Madurai City Corporation indicates the quantity of 162.8 MLD at 2014 and is likely
to be 338.7 MLD in the year 2044. The irrigation potential of wastewater reuse is assessed as 3000
ha with crops like groundnut, maize, millet etc during 2014 and about 6000 ha during 2044. Scope
for utilizing the existing minor irrigation tanks/ponds may be used for storage. Such tanks may also
be useful in polishing the water quality as a result of natural purification. Scope for groundwater
recharge through soil-aquifer treatment is also more.
Keywords: Wastewater Generation, Reuse, Irrigation, SBR Technology.
IJCIET
©IAEME

65
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Environment of the earth is unique in nature. Presence of water (hydrosphere) on the crust of
earth planet keeps the earth as the only live planet in the solar system. Scriptures reveal that all the
living organisms have originated from the water. The total quantity of water available has been
estimated at 1.40 billion cubic kilometre. As per the law of conservation of mass mass can neither
be created and destroyed, the earth's total water remains constant for millions of years and is going
to be unchanged in the years to come. Appearance of water in the hydrological cycle is in different
forms. Evaporation and condensation process render the water to appear as rainwater, surface water
and groundwater. Out of available water, major portion, 97%, is seen as salty water in the ocean. The
balance 3% is not directly useable. Only about 0.6% of the total water is found as fresh water for the
entire demand. Uneven distribution of water within the countries and the regions within a country is
an another detrimental factor. Water is essentially required for the sectors: Irrigation, Drinking,
Industry, Energy and other purposes. Rain water, surface water (river, lake, pond and dam),
groundwater and sea water are generally considered as the sources of water for the various demands.
Though the water available stands at fixed level, the demand is steadily increasing in lieu of
increasing population coupled with industrialization and growing agricultural food production.
Entire development of a country rests with its water resources. Countries located in the arid
and semi arid regions mostly experience water shortages. Water becomes scarce commodity and
even play a role of deciding the ruling power. Conflicts between countries, states and even at village
level are seen worldwide due to shortages of water. Competition between the sectors is also
pronounced. Forecast indicates the next world war at the cost of water. As the quantity of water
supplied for drinking need becomes wastewater (used water) after use. It is now considered as a
source across the globe for the water management as shown in figure 1. As both industry and
populations continue to increase and freshwater availability decreases, wastewater becomes an
important regional planning variable.
Figure 1: Water resource, use and treatment cycle

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With this in mind, an attempt has been made to analyse the wastewater generation potential
from Madurai City corporation, Tamil Nadu, India and its scope of reuse for the water management
especially for irrigation.
2.0 WATER DEMAND IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU
India with varied climatic conditions and uneven distribution of water sources enters into the
list of water stress countries in the world. In India, the total quantity of water available is assessed as
4200 Billion cubic metre. The water demand for irrigation, drinking, industry, energy and other
purposes for the year 2010, 2025 and 2050 assessed by the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR)
and by National Council for Integrated Water Resources and Development (NCIWRD) is shown in
figure 2 and figure 3 respectively. It is observed from the figures that the demand for all the sectors is
showing increasing trend. The water supply demand for the 498 class I cities is put at 44769 Million
Litre per Day (MLD) while the 410 class II towns demand 3324 MLD of water. So, the total drinking
water demand for the urban area is 48093 MLD. It indicates the wastewater generation potential and
suggests the scope for reuse after required treatment for varied applications. Now-a-days, various
technologies have been developed for the treatment and reclamation of wastewater across the world.
The matter of concern is only the cost.
Figure 2: India's water requirement for various sectors
Source: Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India

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Figure 3: India's water requirement for various sectors
Source: National Council for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCRWD).
Tamil Nadu is the water starving state next to Rajasthan in India. With the 80% of the
geographic area of hard rock, groundwater potential is declining day by day warranting an alternate
choice of source for water. In respect of Tamil Nadu, the total population, as per census 2011, is
721.38 lakh (Rural- 371.89 lakh and Urban - 349.49 lakh). There are 42 class I cities with the same
number of class II towns. The drinking water demand for the class I cities and class II towns is
shown in figure 4. Tamil Nadu accommodates 94614 rural habitations. Out of which 84003
habitations have been supplied with 40 litres per head per day (LPCD) of water. The balance 10611
villages receive at about 20 LPCD. The water demand in the year 2020 has been assessed as 2170
Million Cubic Metre.

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Figure 4: Water supply quantity to the cities in Tamil Nadu
3.0 WASTEWATER REUSE
Wastewater reuse is classified into Indirect reuse and direct reuse. In indirect reuse, reclaimed
water from the used water (wastewater) is discharged into the natural streams, rivers and recharge of
groundwater through aquifer (figure 5). Groundwater augmentation by artificial recharge is also
done. It is sometimes called as Soil aquifer treatment (SAT). Most of the natural purifications taking
place in the river beds are of SAT form. It is reported that the micro-organisms have the tendency to
stick to the solid surfaces when they come across during travel. Based on which the distance between
the water source and any disposal point is mostly suggested to prevent pollution.
Figure 5: Types of wastewater reuse

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Direct reuse application includes the use of reclaimed water for agricultural, industrial and
residential irrigation. Reclaimed water from the sewage is used for drinking (direct potable use)
purposes (NEWater) in Singapore. Further, the reclaimed water can be used for many other purposes.
Non-irrigation uses for reclaimed water are:
Urban reuse:
Ornamental landscape water features and golf course water features such as ponds and
fountains
Fire protection
Dust control and concrete mixing on construction sites
Vehicle and window washing
Toilet flushing in public, commercial, and industrial buildings
Industrial reuse:
Cooling water
Boiler make-up water
Industrial process water
Intentional indirect potable reuse.
Indirect potable reuse refers the discharge of wastewater into a water body where it is then
knowingly or unknowingly drawn for water supply in the river courses. For an example, many water
sources have been located for the cities lie along the river course of Cauvery in Tamil Nadu, The
effluent from the sewage treatment plants after natural purification (passing through a stream,
channel etc) reaches the river bed. This occurs unintentionally in most of the rivers, as the
downstream water treatment plants use treated water discharged by upstream wastewater treatment
plants.
Wastewater reuse is not of recent origin, but has been in practice across the world since 1912.
Reuse of wastewater for water lawns and supplying to ornamental lakes in golden gate park, San
Francisco, California, USA is an example of early twentieth century. NEWater project, reclamation
of potable water from sewage project, in Singapore has been in operation since 2003. South Africa,
USA, Israel, Australia, India, Singapore, Japan, etc are the countries started extensively practice the
wastewater reuse.
In India, wastewater irrigation is increasingly used for crops such as vegetables, fruits,
cereals, flowers and fodder. Kolkata (formerly known as Calcutta) has a long history of using
wastewater stabilization tanks for aquaculture. An estimated 2.4 t/ha of fish is produced annually in
Kolkata from about 3200 ha of ponds with inflow of about 3 m3/sec. Throughout India, many
industries recycle wastewater to reduce the requirements for freshwater. Thanks to the enforcement
of zero discharge concept. This trend is led by industries in Saurashtra, Gujarat and Chennai.
Vadodara is the third largest city in Gujarat and growing rapidly. At present, water there is used by
three major sectors. Industrial use began in the 1950s and 1960s with oil, chemical and
pharmaceutical plants. It is concentrated in such peri-urban areas as Nandesari, Bajuva, Ranoli and
Makarpura, where a separate effluent channel handles much of the industrial effluent. Domestic
water supply serves a population estimated at about 1.5 million in 2001. A large agricultural area
extends well beyond the peri-urban limits into the rural areas to the southwest of the city. Municipal
sewage is used to grow vegetables, wheat, paddy rice, and flowers along an 80-km stretch of the
rivers Jambuva, Vishwamitri and Dhadar. It is termed as the municipal sewage use area (MSU area).
Effluent is also used for irrigation along a 56.3-km stretch of the Effluent Channel Project (termed as
the ECP area). Area irrigated with treated wastewater in various cities in India is given table 1.

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Table 1: Area irrigated with wastewater in various cities in India
Sl.No Name of the City Direct use, ha Indirect use, ha
1 Ahmedabad 890
2 Amirstar 1124
3 Bhilai 607
4 Bikner 40
5 Calcutta (Kolkata) 12900
6 Delhi 1214
7 Gwalior 202
8 Hyderabad 110 40500
9 Jamshedpur 113
10 Kanpur 1300
11 Lucknow 150
In Noida, around 69 MLD of treated sewage water is generated each day at the two sewage
treatment plants. It is reported fit for use in construction and irrigation activities. Sequential Batch
Reactor (SBR) technology in two sewage treatment plants has been installed in the city. The levels of
organic pollutants in treated water have gone down and the average level of BOD in water has
become reduced to just about 10 mg per litre. It is planned to use the treated effluent for construction
and irrigation purposes. The Authority currently uses treated wastewater to irrigate some green belts
in the city. Excess water is released in Yamuna river. The move will reduce the burden on
groundwater considerably. Further, it has been proposed to construct an additional STP of 87 MLD
capacity with SBR technology. In Karnataka, Hubli-Dharwad, reuse project is an one of the
examples of wastewater reuse projects. Chennai Metro Water Supply and Sewerage Board sells
treated wastewater to the public sector undertakings for industrial purposes.
Zero discharge wastewater treatment with reuse system is in operation since July 2009 in a
dwelling house at Dindigul, TN. The house accommodates two families having 3 people in each
family. Daily 600 litres of water is being pumped from a borewell by means of 5.0 HP motor coupled
with air compressor and stored in 2 numbers of 300 litres sintex tanks placed on roof. As mixing of
black water and grey water makes the treatment a little complex, Grey water and black water are
collected separately with separate plumbing arrangement. The photographic image of the planter bed
shown below (Photo 1).

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Photo 1: Grey water treatment and reuse for vegetables
The black water treatment system accommodates a septic tank and a sub surface Constructed
wet land (CW) (reed bed /root zone bed). The size of the septic tank is 3.0 m X 2.40 m. Constructed
wet land has the size of 3.5 m X 0.45 m X 0.60 m with receiving chamber and outlet box.
Wastewater generated from the toilets is passed through Septic tank and CW. The overflow of the
septic tank is connected to the on-site CW
4.0 WASTEWATER GENERATION AND SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITY AT
MADURAI CITY
4.1 About Madurai
Madurai city corporation is one among the ten metropolitan cities in Tamil Nadu. Having
located at almost in the southern part of the state, it is the city for education and business. City covers
an area of 148.99 square kilo metre. Climate prevailing is arid to semi arid. Rainfall is occasional.
Annual rainfall varies from 547.0 mm to 1264.0 mm against the normal rainfall of 891.50 mm.
Groundwater table level fluctuation during 1991 to 2012 is found to vary between 4.0 metre and
11.10 metre below ground level. The 2011 census population is 15.64 lakh. The population from
1961 to 2011 is tabulated (Table 2) and the projected population for the future by different methods
(arithmetic increase, incremental increase, geometric increase and line of best fit) is shown in figure
6. It is observed that the population has increased to almost three fold over a period of 5 decades. In
addition to urbanization, more and more adjacent areas are merged with the city corporation limit.

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Table 2: Population of madurai City Corporation
Sl.No Year Population, lakh
1 1961 4.24
2 1971 5.49
3 1981 8.20
4 1991 9.41
5 2001 10.67
6 2011 15.64
The forecast indicates that the population during the year 2044 is more than 30 lakh. It is
almost double the 2011 census population. The present water supply level is more than 100 LPCD
and it is planned to increase to 135 LPCD. Vaigai river is the major source for the city's drinking
water demand. Surrounding area of the city is an agricultural area.
Figure 6: Forecast of population by different methods

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4.2 Wastewater generation

Wastewater quantity generation is generally assumed as 80 % of quantity of water supplied
for drinking purpose. Assuming the per capita rate as 100 litres per head per day, the quantity of
wastewater generation is shown in figure 7.
Figure 7: Wastewater generation in Madurai - present and future
Forecast indicates a wastewater quantity of around 160 MLD and 300 MLD at present and in
2014 and 2044 respectively. Almost a constant quantity of wastewater can be expected from the city
as the drinking water supply has to be consistent.
4.3 Sewage Treatment (Wastewater) Plant
Madurai city has 2 numbers of sewage treatment plants located one at Avaniyapuran and an
another at Sakkimangalam. The former has 125 MLD capacity and the later's capacity is 47.50 MLD
totaling to 172.50 MLD. Among various sewage treatment technologies available ( Oxidation ditch,
Activated sludge process, extended aeration(ASP), Up flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB),
fluidized aerobic bio reactor(FAB), moving bed bio reactor (MBBR), sequential batch reactor (SBR),
membrane bio reactor (MBR), waste stabilisation ponds, etc, the sewage treatment plant of Madurai

employs SBR technology ( otherwise called as C-Tech basins) with necessary primary treatment unit
(screen, grit removal) and disinfection and sludge handling arrangement due to the following
advantages.
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Less area to install the plant
Good efficiency in treatment, like reducing BOD,COD,TSS,etc.
Biological nutrient control for total nitrogen
No need of secondary treatment.
Reducing the treatment time.
Total working in Automation so less manpower.
Total process take in aerobic method no need of anaerobic no danger.
Reduced energy consumption
Biological phosphorus control.
Photo 2: Aerial view of Sewage treatment plant with irrigation tank at Madurai

Total city sewage is
collected at MPS (Main
pumping station) Wells
MPS TO STP INLET CHAMBER
SCREENING (fine screen) ALL
FLOTING PARTICALS ARE
REMOVED HERE
GRIT CHAMBER TO
REMOVE FINE
PARTICALS
BIOLOGICAL SELECTOR ZONE
C-TECH TANKS TO REMOVE
BOD,COD,TSS,NH3
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TREATED WATER TO
CHLORINETOR
SLUDGE TO
CENTRIFUGE HOUSE
DIFFERENT PONDS
Figure 8: Flow diagram sewage treatment process at Madurai

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Table 3: Characteristics of raw Sewage and treated with EPA standard
Sl.No Parameter Raw sewage
( Range )
Treated effluent EPA standard
for reuse
1 Biological oxygen demand
(BOD), mg/L
200-300 Less than 10 30
2 Chemical oxygen demand
(COD),Mg/L
400-500 Less than 100
3 Total suspended solids, mg/L 200-400 Less than 10 30
4 Total Kjedahl Nitrogen, as N,
mg/L
12-15 Less than 10
5 Ammonia Nitrogen as N, mg/L 5-10 Less than 2
6 Total phosphate as (PO4),mg/L 3-5 Less than 2
7 Faecal coliform, Numbers/100
mL
1Million Less than 200 200
8 pH 7.0-9.0 7.9
9 Oil and Grease, mg/L 15-20 Less than 5
The city's sewage is collected through a net work of sewer lines to the main pumping station
(MPS) and then pumped to the inlet chamber at STP. The flow diagram of the treatment system is
depicted in figure 8. Effluent from the STP is collected through pipes to Chlorination tank, After
chlorination, final effluent is conveyed through pipes to the different ponds. The sludge which is
pumped to Centrifuge after adding poly electrolyte wherein sludge is thickened as cakes.
The characteristics of raw sewage and treated effluent with the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) of USA Standard for reuse in agriculture with restricted access irrigation is tabulated
(Table 8). It is observed that the strength of the sewage indicates that it is almost domestic sewage as
the BOD is less than 300 mg/L. No industrial effluent mixing is observed. It may the fact that city
limit does not accommodate any major industries. The treated effluent quality meets the standard set
by EPA and Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) for restricted access irrigation. The
highly improved characteristics of the treated effluent shows the efficiency of the sewage treatment
technology, ie SBR technology.
Many numbers of small and minor irrigation tanks, ponds and other structures are available
adjacent to the city and the sewage treatment plant. Natural channels prevail to facilitate the
conveyance of effluent to the ponds. Tamil Nadu is known for the ponds (kulam, Kuttai and Oorani)
and irrigation tanks. 3511 tanks are available in Madurai district against the 86746 numbers in Tamil
Nadu. These tanks may be used for storing the effluent from the STP and used for irrigation. Storing
the effluent open to atmosphere may improve the quality of water by way of aeration and natural
settling. Every chance is there to increase the dissolved oxygen level.
4.4 sewage farm
Wastewater reuse is not new for the Madurai city corporation. It has two sewage farms. One
is located at Avaniyapuram with an area extend of 385 acres, which is utilized for both solid waste
dumping yard and sewage farm. Guinea grass is grown in 145 acres and the rest is used for solid
waste management. Sakkimangalam sewage farm incorporates 180 acres of land. Photo 3 shows the
guinea grass grown in the farm. Annual revenue earned from the sewage farm on selling fodder is
about Rs.40.00 lakh.

77

Photo 3: Sewage farm with Guinea grass (fodder crop) at Madurai
After wetting the farm, reclaimed water flows into the nearby irrigation tank and stored.
These tanks are dry in most of the months in a year. They receive flow only during north-east
monsoon i.e during October and November.
4.5 Irrigation Potential
Mostly groundnut, maize, sorghum, sunflower, etc are cultivated in and around Madurai due
to the climatic conditions and water resources availability. The area may be brought under
wastewater irrigation has been workout considering the daily wastewater generation expected during
2014 and 2044 based on the average crop water need with crop period. The average area which may
be irrigated works out to 3000 ha (Table 4). It doubles in the year 2044. The number of crops can be
grown comes as 4 for beans, 3 for maize and one crop for cotton.
Table 4: Irrigation potential of wastewater generation from Madurai
Crop
Crop water
need, mm
Average
Crop water
need, m
Crop
period,
Days
Crop water
per day,m
Area can be
irrigated, ha
Number of
Crops
2014 2044
Beans 300-500 0.40 83 0.00482 3378 7028 4
Citrus 900-1200 1.05 240 0.00438 3721 7742 1
Cotton 700-1300 1.00 187 0.00535 3044 6334 1
Groundnut 600-700 0.65 120 0.00542 3006 6253 3
Maize 500-800 0.65 95 0.00684 2379 4950 3
Sorghum/
450-650 0.55 125 0.00440 3700 7698 2
Millet
Soya beans 400-700 0.55 143 0.00385 4233 8806 2
Sunflower 600-1000 0.80 142 0.00563 2890 6012 2
Wastewater generation - 162.8 MLD during 2014
- 338.7 MLD during 2044

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5.0 CONCLUSION

Water drawn from a water resource for domestic purpose appear as wastewater after use. The
three stage treatment viz: primary, secondary and tertiary/advanced treatment render the treated
effluent as a water resource. As the prime concern is given to supply drinking water at even critical
circumstance, the wastewater generation enjoys its consistency/dependability than other natural
water resources like river, etc. Wastewater deserves recognition as a source of irrigation water in
different countries around the world. In India, the total wastewater generation from the urban towns
has been assessed as 38474 MLD. It indicates its potential for reuse in water management.
Wastewater reuse has been in practice at selected locations around the world including India.
Guidelines, clearly explaining the health associated factors, have been developed and prescribed by
the EPA, US and WHO. The forecast of the wastewater generation from Madurai City Corporation
indicates the quantity of 162.8 MLD at 2014 and is likely to be 338.7 MLD in the year 2044.
Madurai city has two wastewater treatment plants with the total capacity of 172.50 MLD. The
irrigation potential of wastewater reuse is assessed as 3000 ha with crops like groundnut, maize,
millet etc during 2014 and about 6000 ha during 2044. 3511 tanks are available in Madurai district
against the 86746 numbers in Tamil Nadu. The existing minor irrigation tanks/ponds may be used for
storage. Storage of effluent in such tanks may also help in improving the water quality as a result of
natural purification. Scope for groundwater recharge through soil-aquifer treatment is also highly
encouraging. Existing sewage farm earn an annual return of Rs.40.00 lakh from selling of fodder
grown.
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