2. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
AN OVERVIEW
Migrants involve in different types of migration streams and they are characterized by
large number of socio economic variables like caste, landholding size, age, gender, education,
family size, consumption levels etc. The National Commission for Rural Labour Report,
1991, suggests that a large number of migrants are basically those who have less landholding.
For them seasonal migration is the best option as they are not in a position to arrange moving
cost and subsequently staying cost in urban location during initial stage of migration. In terms
of education, it is observed that rate of migration is high among highly educated as well as
least educated individuals. But for these two extreme groups, nature of job is different after
migration. Those who are highly educated normally get into well paid formal sector job, thus
improves the standard of living. But for least educated the reverse is the truth. This group of
migrants landed up in urban informal sector job, where neither the working condition is good
nor do they have the job security. Not only that, most of the time they suffer from lack of
access to basic amenities and labour market discrimination. The poor migrants once enter in
the urban job markets face large uncertainties in the potential job market. They also incur the
risk of high job search cost. This risk is increased if the distance of place of destination
increases from place of origin.
Jobs in the urban informal sector are highly segmented and based around people of
same caste, religion and kinship. This social network provides initial income support,
information, accommodation and access to jobs.
Table 1.1: Rural Urban Population Distribution in India (1901, 1951, 2011)
Census Year
% of Population in Rural
% of Population in Urban
Areas
Areas
1901
89.2
10.8
1951
82.7
17.3
2011
68.8
31.2
Source: Census 2011 – Provisional Population Totals – India
Migration has created diverse impact in both sources as well as destination areas.
These impacts are complex in nature and a thorough understanding is required to know the
real impact of labour migration. It has created an impact on the lives of migrants as well as
their households, social and political lives in both source as well as destination areas.
Remittances and savings are a primary channel through which migrant workers are able to
stabilize or improve their conditions of living. Remittances also impact on intra – and – inter
household relations and the pattern of growth and development in source areas. The other
important channels through which migration affects workers and impacts on the source and
destination areas are the nature of their involvement in labour markets and changes in
workers’ tastes, perceptions and attitudes. The latter are less tangible but nonetheless of great
significance.
India’s economic growth pattern shows a mixed outcome in terms of migration. Due
to industrial growth demand for both skilled and unskilled labour is on the rise. The
concentrated growth in urban areas attracted lots of migrant workers because of greater job
opportunities. On the other hand, low industrial growth and low job opportunities in the rural
sector created a push factor which influences the migration decision.
23
3. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
The other main feature influencing the pace and pattern is the emerging characteristics
of the labour market in India. There has been a shift in labour regimes towards greater in
formalization and flexibilization. It is believed that employment related migration has
definitely increased. Further, while documented migration flows, it shows that migration
propensity is higher among the better off and the more skilled but there is an increase in
labour circulation and seasonal labour migration, partly dictated by the emerging labour
regimes and partly by the growth in sectors such as construction, which mainly depend upon
migrant labour.
The impact of migration on growth is not only confined to the industrial and services
sector, but increasingly agricultural development, too, is coming to depend more on labour
migration, because young people move out of cultivation in more developed areas, and
agricultural employers become more and more unwilling to deal with local sources of labour.
Table 1.2: Urbanization & Decadal Growth
Year
Total
population
No. of
Towns
and
UAs
Urban
Population
Share of Urban
Population to
Total Population
(%)
Decadal
Growth of
Urban
Population
(%)
Index of
Urban
Population
(Base
1951 = 100)
1951
36.11
2843
6.24
17.3
41.4
100
1961
43.92
2365
7.89
18.0
26.4
126
1971
54.81
2590
10.91
19.9
38.2
175
1981
68.33
3378
15.95
23.3
46.1
256
1991
84.63
3768
21.76
25.7
36.4
349
2001
102.86
5161
28.61
27.8
31.3
458
Source: Planning Commission Report on Urban Development for 11th Five Year Plan
(2007 – 2012)
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
To visualize the various determinants of migration from rural and semi-urban areas to
urban area
To provide various remedial measures to overcome migration problem.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The present study is restricted to selected rural and semi-urban areas of eastern part of
India, i.e. West Bengal and Odisha
The sample size is limited to 108 only and this may not represent the views of others.
The period of study is for 4 months, i.e. October 2013 and January 2014.
24
4. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
For the purpose of collection of data initially pilot study was conducted by taking 26
various variables and after the pilot study the variables were restricted to 18 only. Stratified
random sampling method used covering the selected rural and semi-urban areas of West
Bengal and Odisha. Total 219 questionnaires were distributed and out of which only 108
responses were received. This includes 28 respondents belongs to male in rural area and 24
belongs to female in the rural area. Similarly, in case of semi-urban area 29 were male and 27
were female respondents. Likert Scale method used with close end option in the
questionnaire. The rate of response was 49.32%.
Respondents’ perception with regard to the determinants of migration
To measure the perception level of the respondents of rural and semi-urban areas, the
various variables identified are economic reasons and improved standard of living, better
health care facility and entertainment, better employment opportunity, existence of surplus
work force in rural areas, nature of employment (sometimes temporary or seasonal), reduce
the risk of income loss, individual migration because of less land holding, pursuing higher
education and better training facility, to get the social protection, women migration for social
conditions (marriage), migration because of geographic proximity, climate change factors
like low rainfall and change in temperature or weather condition, business motive, due to
violence, fear of famine/ flood, strict repayment of loan to the micro-credit organizations
during the lean period, socio economic disparities between rural & urban areas and limited
income opportunities in rural areas. In this regard we have been assigned as +4,+3,+2,+1 and
0 for the responses of the respondents “ Completely agree”, “ Agree”, “ Neutral, “ Disagree”
and “ Completely disagree” respectively. Final scores for each feature are calculated by
multiplying the number of response by the weights of the corresponding response.
Calculation of respondents’ perception: Ideal and Least scores
Ideal scores are calculated by multiplying the number of respondents in each category
with (+4) and product with total number of attributes. Least scores calculated by multiplying
the number of respondents in each category with (0) and the product with number of
attributes in the questionnaires.
Table-1.3: Ideal and Least scores
Category
Equation
Ideal score
Equation
Least score
Male in Rural area
28X4X18
2016
28X0X18
0
Female in Rural area
24X4X18
1728
24X0X18
0
Male in Semi-urban area
29X4X18
2088
29X0X18
0
Female in Semi-urban area
27X4X18
1944
27X0X18
0
25
5. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
Analysis of Data
Variables
Aggregate Score
RURAL AREA
SEMI-URBAN
AREA
Male
94
Female
83
Male
109
Female
100
96
103
97
97
87
87
89
92
97
99
102
107
95
88
95
95
97
102
82
82
97
93
84
84
102
81
106
85
101
101
81
87
97
105
91
93
92
92
76
86
94
108
102
94
91
94
100
96
86
84
79
79
98
95
87
101
91
95
96
89
88
85
97
99
93
82
98
95
Total Scores
1736
1508
1790
1671
Ideal Scores
2016
1728
2088
1944
Least Scores
0
0
0
0
86.11
28
87.27
24
85.73
29
85.96
27
Economic reasons and improved standard of
living
Better health care facility and entertainment
Better employment opportunity
Existence of surplus work force in rural areas
Nature of employment (sometimes temporary
or seasonal)
Reduce the risk of income loss,
Individual migration because of less land
holding
Pursuing higher education and better training
facility
To get the social protection
Women migration for social conditions
(marriage)
Migration because of geographic proximity
Climate change factors like low rainfall and
change in temperature or weather condition,
Business motive
Due to violence
Fear of famine/ flood
Strict repayment of loan to the micro-credit
organizations during the lean period,
Socio economic disparities between rural &
urban areas
Limited income opportunities in rural areas.
% of total score to Ideal score
No of respondents
Source: Annexure A, B, C & D
26
6. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), IS
ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
January February
2500
2000
1500
Total Scores
Ideal Scores
1000
Least Scores
500
0
Rural male
Rural female
Semi-urban
male
Semi-urban
female
Interpretation- In the above table it shows that the total score for various male and female in
rural areas are 1736 and 1508 and similarly the same for the semi-urban areas are 1790 and
semi urban
1671 respectively. In no case the total score touches the least score. The percentages of total
percent
score to ideal score are for the semi-urban area for male and female are 85.73% and 85.96%
semi urban
respectively. Also in case of semi-urban area the percentage of total score of female and male
semi urban
in the rural area are 87.27% and 86.11%. This indicates that all the variables considered for
the study seems to have better support from the respondents.
Remedial measure
There are number of issues that needs to be taken care in the area, however in this
direction following are important ones
Infrastructure development needs to be improved in the rural and semi-urban area
semi urban
Better health care facility needs to be improved in the area
Better education facility in the rural and semi-urban area
semi
Scope for employment generation should be created in the rural and semi
semi-urban area
Training facility for the self employment should be created in the area
Population control should be made in the area
Child marriage should be stopped
CONCLUDING OBSERVATION
We also strongly feel that the inherent problems in rural area specially cannot be
specially
changed in overnight. It is very unfortunate that even after 66 years of independence we are
not able to provide basic needs to the rural masses. The major problem in the area is lack of
infrastructure and adequate education facility, basic health care facility, increased population
basic
and child marriage etc. Since independence lot of schemes were implemented in the name of
27
7. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
welfare schemes for these rural areas however the benefits were not reached to these people.
Most of the times the schemes are implemented in the paper only. It is very surprise to find
that most of the areas we visited for collecting data do not even the electricity and proper
transportation and so called government sponsored schemes are miles away from these
people. The migration no doubt helps the migrants economically and able to help for the
survival. This migration having effect on urban area also, because of this the urban area
becomes congested and also number of problem arises in the urban area like housing,
drinking water, electricity, theft and other basic sanitary issues. No doubt these migrated
people contribute for the development of urban areas economy but at the same time they also
creates imbalance in the urban sanitary issues. This migration leads to development of slum
in the urban area. So every effort should be made to stop migration to the extent possible by
creating and providing infrastructure, employment, and health care and education facilities in
these rural and semi-urban areas. In this regard we would like to conclude with the vision of
Dr. Achyutanand Samant, the founder of KIIT and KISS and internationally acknowledged
Social entrepreneur, (who is the founder of Kalinga Institute of Social Sciences (KISS), a
Tribal School for the 25,000 students who are provided with free education and boarding)- “
Empowering the under privileged through education”. The need of the hour is we need
more people like Dr. Samant, who is living legend for the underprivileged and messiah for
the tribal empowerment in India.
REFERENCES
[1] Kwaku Twumasi Ankrah (1995), Rural Urban Migration & Socioeconomic
Development in Ghana; Journal of Social Development in Africa, Vol. 10, No. 2,
pp. 13 – 22.
[2] Rita Afsar (1999), Rural-urban dichotomy and convergence: emerging realities in
Bangladesh.
[3] John Kennan & James R. Walker (March 2003), The Effect of Expected Income on
Individual Migration Decisions; Working Paper 9585, National Bureau of Economic
Research.
[4] Amaresh Dubey, Richard Palmer – Jones & Kunal Sen (July 2004), Surplus Labour,
Social Structure & Rural to Urban Migration: Evidence from Indian Data; Conference
Paper Presented at the Conference on the 50th Anniversary of the Lewis Model.
[5] Priya Deshingkar (June 2004), Understanding the Implications of Migration for Pro –
poor Agricultural Growth; Overseas Development Institute, London, Paper prepared
for the DAC POVNET Agriculture Task Group Meeting.
[6] Richard Black, Lyndsay Mclean Hilker & Claire Pooley (November 2004), Migration
and Pro – poor Policy in East Africa; Working Paper C 7, Sussex Centre for Migration
Research.
[7] D. Dhanuraj, “Health Insurance Scheme for Low Income Groups in India with a Focus
on Urban Poor in Cochin”, International Journal of Management (IJM), Volume 2,
Issue 2, 2011, pp. 182 - 197, ISSN Print: 0976-6502, ISSN Online: 0976-6510.
[8] Dr. B .Chandra Mohan Patnaik, Dr. Ipseeta Satpathy and Mr. Chandrabhanu Das,
“Effectiveness of Outsourcing of Internal Audit and Financial Reporting by the
Corporate”, International Journal of Advanced Research in Management (IJARM),
Volume 5, Issue 1, 2013, pp. 53 – 58, ISSN Print: 0976 – 6324, ISSN Online:
0976 – 6332.
28
8. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
Annexure-A (28)
Perception of Male in rural area
VARIABLES
CA
A
N
DA
CDA SCORE
4
3
2
1
0
19
3
4
1
1
94
Economic reasons and improved
standard of living
18
5
4
1
0
96
Better health care facility and
entertainment
23
2
2
1
0
103
Better employment opportunity
20
4
2
1
1
97
Existence of surplus work force in
rural areas
17
8
2
1
0
97
Nature of employment (sometimes
temporary or seasonal)
21
2
3
1
1
97
Reduce the risk of income loss,
22
3
2
1
0
102
Individual migration because of
less land holding
19
8
1
0
0
102
Pursuing higher education and
better training facility
23
1
2
2
0
101
To get the social protection
21
4
2
1
0
101
Women migration for social
conditions (marriage)
19
3
3
1
2
92
Migration because of geographic
proximity
18
4
3
2
1
92
Climate change factors like low
rainfall and change in temperature
or weather condition,
17
5
3
2
1
91
Business motive
19
4
2
2
1
94
Due to violence
20
5
2
1
0
100
Fear of famine/ flood
18
6
2
2
0
96
Strict repayment of loan to the
micro-credit organizations during
the lean period,
17
4
3
2
2
88
Socio
economic
disparities
between rural & urban areas
16
8
2
1
1
93
Limited income opportunities in
rural areas.
Source: Compiled from field survey
29
9. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
Annexure-B (24)
Perception of Female in rural area
VARIABLES
CA
A
N
DA
CDA SCORE
4
3
2
1
0
18
2
2
1
1
83
Economic reasons and improved
standard of living
17
5
2
0
0
87
Better health care facility and
entertainment
19
2
2
1
0
87
Better employment opportunity
20
2
1
1
0
89
Existence of surplus work force in
rural areas
21
2
1
0
0
92
Nature of employment (sometimes
temporary or seasonal)
17
3
2
1
1
82
Reduce the risk of income loss,
18
2
1
2
1
82
Individual migration because of
less land holding
16
4
2
1
1
81
Pursuing higher education and
better training facility
17
2
3
1
1
81
To get the social protection
19
2
2
1
0
87
Women migration for social
conditions (marriage)
15
2
4
2
1
76
Migration because of geographic
proximity
19
2
1
2
0
86
Climate change factors like low
rainfall and change in temperature
or weather condition,
20
1
1
1
1
86
Business motive
19
2
1
0
2
84
Due to violence
18
1
1
2
2
79
Fear of famine/ flood
17
2
2
1
2
79
Strict repayment of loan to the
micro-credit organizations during
the lean period,
18
3
1
2
0
85
Socio
economic
disparities
between rural & urban areas
16
5
1
1
1
82
Limited income opportunities in
rural areas.
Source: Compiled from field survey
30
10. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
Annexure-C (29)
Perception of Male in semi-urban area
VARIABLES
CA
A
N
DA
CDA SCORE
4
3
2
1
0
23
4
2
0
0
109
Economic reasons and improved
standard of living
20
3
3
2
1
97
Better health care facility and
entertainment
19
4
5
1
0
99
Better employment opportunity
21
3
4
1
0
102
Existence of surplus work force in
rural areas
22
5
2
0
0
107
Nature of employment (sometimes
temporary or seasonal)
18
6
3
1
1
97
Reduce the risk of income loss,
17
5
4
2
1
93
Individual migration because of
less land holding
21
6
2
0
0
106
Pursuing higher education and
better training facility
18
6
3
1
1
97
To get the social protection
21
5
3
0
0
105
Women migration for social
conditions (marriage)
19
4
2
2
2
94
Migration because of geographic
proximity
24
2
3
0
0
108
Climate change factors like low
rainfall and change in temperature
or weather condition,
20
3
4
1
1
98
Business motive
18
6
2
1
2
95
Due to violence
17
4
2
3
3
87
Fear of famine/ flood
20
5
2
2
0
101
Strict repayment of loan to the
micro-credit organizations during
the lean period,
18
4
6
1
0
97
Socio
economic
disparities
between rural & urban areas
20
2
5
2
0
98
Limited income opportunities in
rural areas.
Source: Compiled from field survey
31
11. International Journal of Marketing and Human Resource Management (IJMHRM), ISSN 0976
– 6421 (Print), ISSN 0976 – 643X (Online), Volume 5, Issue 1, January-February (2013)
Annexure-D (27)
Perception of Female in semi-urban area
VARIABLES
CA
A
N
DA
CDA SCORE
4
3
2
1
0
22
2
3
0
0
100
Economic reasons and improved
standard of living
21
2
2
1
1
95
Better health care facility and
entertainment
19
2
2
2
2
88
Better employment opportunity
20
3
2
2
1
95
Existence of surplus work force in
rural areas
19
4
3
1
0
95
Nature of employment (sometimes
temporary or seasonal)
18
2
2
2
3
84
Reduce the risk of income loss,
17
3
2
3
2
84
Individual migration because of
less land holding
16
5
2
2
2
85
Pursuing higher education and
better training facility
17
6
2
1
1
91
To get the social protection
19
4
2
1
1
93
Women migration for social
conditions (marriage)
22
4
1
0
0
102
Migration because of geographic
proximity
18
6
2
0
1
94
Climate change factors like low
rainfall and change in temperature
or weather condition,
20
2
2
1
2
91
Business motive
19
4
3
1
0
95
Due to violence
21
2
2
2
0
96
Fear of famine/ flood
19
2
2
3
1
89
Strict repayment of loan to the
micro-credit organizations during
the lean period,
22
2
2
1
0
99
Socio
economic
disparities
between rural & urban areas
20
3
2
2
0
95
Limited income opportunities in
rural areas.
Source: Compiled from field survey
32