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STRESS
FAMILY
PERSONALITY
WORK
FINANCE
HOUSING
STEROIDS
ADRENALINEDiarrhoea
Sweating
Raised BP
Inc. pulse/palpitations
Breathing
Brain
Dec CO2
Increased muscle tension
Stiffness
Migraine
IBS Asthma Angina
Feel awful
Negative
thoughts
Solutions:
Problem Solving
Worry Time
Counselling
Exercise
Diet
Relaxation
Meditation
Yoga/Pilates/Tai Chai
Breathing
Blood flow
to frontal
lobe dec.
Tunnel –
black and
white
thinking
Avoidance
Recommended reading for Primary Care
For Clinicians, Counsellors and Therapists
‘10 minutes for the Family’ Asen, Tomson, Tomson and Young 2004 Routledge
Beyond Depression Chris Dowrick
Narrative-based Primary Care John Launer 2002 Radcliffe Medical Press
The 15 minute hour Stuart and Lieberman
Human Givens Joe Griffin and Ivan Tyrell 2006 HG publishing
Thinking about Patients David Misselbrook 2001 Petroc Press
General Practice - Demanding Work Waller and Hodgkin 2000
Reflective practice Gillie Bolton 2005 Sage Publications
Family Oriented Primary Care Susan McDaniel et al 2005 Springer
Narrative Medicine, Coyote Medicine, Coyote Healing, Coyote Wisdom - Lewis
Mehl Madrona
The Biology of Belief Bruce Lipton 2005 Cygnus Books
Love and Survival Dean Ornish 1998 Vermilion
Love Medicine and Miracles Bernie Siegal 1988 Arrow
Presence: exploring profound change in people organisations and society Peter
Senge
The Mindful Way through Depression Mark Williams, John Teasdale, Zindel
Segal and Jon Kabat Zin 2007 Guilford Press
Molecules of Emotion Candace Peart 1998
Self-help books for clinicians, counsellors, therapists and patients
Women who love too much Robin Norwood (Addictive relationships)
A Woman in your own Right Anne Dickson (Common sense approach to
assertivemess/empowerment)
Children of Alcoholics David Stafford
Marriage on the Rocks Janet Woiktitz (Alcohol and co-dependent relationships)
Freedom from addiction Griffin and Tyrell (Covers all addictions)
Trapped in the Mirror Elan Golomb (Living with narcissistic parents)
Children of the Self-absorbed Nina Brown (Narcissistic parents)
We are all in shock Stephanie Mines (Trauma and healing the body)
The Gift of Life, Living Magically, Wild Love and Pure Bliss by Gill Edwards
(spiritual but non-religious approaches to healing and self-development)
Stop walking on Eggshells Mason and Kreger (Deliberate self-harm and living
with personality disorder)
Eating Less Gillian Riley
The Miracle of Mindfulness Thich Nhat Hanh
The Presence Process Michael Brown (Managing chronic pain)
Families and How to Survive Them Skynner and Cleese
Women who run with the Wolves Clarissa Pinkola Estes (Understanding the
depth of folk stories from an analytical perspective)
Waking the Tiger: Healing Trauma. The innate capacity to transform overwhelming
experiences Peter Levine (Sexual abuse)
The Emotionally Unavailable Man – a blueprint for healing Patti Henry 2004
Rainbow Books (includes the man’s perspective and the woman’s perspective)
Getting Better Bit(e) by Bit(e) Schmidt and Treasure (Eating disorders for
sufferers and carers)
Grieving Mindfully Sameet Kumar
Asperger’s Syndrome Tony Attwood Jessica Kingsley
The Essential Difference Simon Baron-Cohen
Useful websites
www.positiverewards.com
www.livinglifetothefull
www.moodgym
www.livingmagically
Venetia.young@btopenworld.com
Venetia Young May 2009-05-03
Easy breathing.
Breathing is something we take for granted. We presume that because we have done it
all our lives then we must be doing it OK, but this is not at all the case.
Are you someone who suffers from asthma, COPD? If so you certainly will have
problems with breathing. What is less well known is that people suffering from anxiety,
depression, IBS (irritable bowel syndrome), angina, CHD, headaches, migraine, neck and
shoulder pain, muscle aches and pains and many more vague and medically unexplained
symptoms also have problems with not breathing properly. Attention to breathing has
been recognised as being important by many eastern traditions like Buddhism and yoga.
It is also part of much meditation and relaxation practice.
Paying attention to proper breathing, even after a life-time of poor breathing, works.
Patients have commented:
“I can control my worried thoughts with 5 breaths now – they just go pop and disappear.
I’m so proud of myself “. (64year old with a previously severe anxiety disorder)
“I can control my angina when I’m stressed. I’ve never breathed properly all my life.
This is amazing.” (55 year old man with CHD)
“I’m so much calmer. I practice breathing several times a day now.” (22yr old man with
anxiety problems).
“My post-herpetic neuralgia feels less of a problem, when I’m breathing properly.” (60
year old man)
“I’m astounded that my oxygen saturation level goes up to normal when I’m breathing
more slowly.” (55 year old woman with asthma just having had a course of steroids and
thinking she wasn’t better).
What might you be doing that is not helpful?
Breathing from the top part of your chest and not using your diaphragm
Not breathing into the sides of your chest and the back of your chest
Breathing too fast (hyperventilation)
Not allowing a gap between the in breath and the out breath
Panicking about your breathing
Forcing your breath out
Why does this matter?
If you breathe from the top of your chest, you hold your shoulder and neck tightly
and increase the feeling of bodily tension.
If you don’t expand your lungs fully oxygen doesn’t get into you blood stream as
effectively
If you breathe too fast you blow off too much carbon dioxide. This
hyperventilation can cause: feelings of unreality, faintness/dizziness, numbness
and tingling especially around the mouth an in the hands, muscle tightening
especially of the breathing muscles (and so a feeling of not being able to breathe),
muscles spasms called tetany, amongst many other symptoms.
If you over-breathe chronically you can lose magnesium through your kidneys as
they try to compensate for the chemical imbalance. This then contributes to a
feeling of tiredness and unwellness.
How should you breathe?
When at rest the most restful breathing rate is between 6-8 breaths per minute. This
takes a little practice to achieve.
Lie down and practice trying to breathe with just your abdominal muscles. Let your
shoulders relax down and relax your neck muscles. Make sure your out breath is a
letting go breath and isn’t forced.
Now sit up and try breathing abdominally not moving your upper chest at all.
Start by practicing 7/11 breathing. Count to seven on the breath in and 11 on the
breath out. Do this for 5 breaths. Notice how you feel, have a little rest and then try
again until it feels more comfortable. Repeat this several times a day.
Some people are more comfortable with breathing round a square. Imagine a
square where each sided represents one of the following parts of the breathing cycle.
Breathe in to the count of 5. Hold your breath to the count of 5. Breathe out to the
count of five. Hold your breath for the count of five. As you are breathing imagine
the square getting bigger, as you slow the rate of counting down.
Imagine when you are breathing that you are breathing oxygen into different parts of
your body, particularly if there are parts that are painful and tense. Some people can
imagine the breath in a healing colour and find this very effective.
Once you are good at breathing with just your abdominal muscles, let your chest
muscles relax so that you can breathe into your back and breathe out sideways.
Imagine that you are breathing with your whole body.
Imagine that you are breathing in and out through your heart.
Keep a regular check on your breathing throughout the day, every day.
Abnormalities of breathing may be the first signs of some stress. Catch it early!
How does this work?
There is a part of the body called the autonomic nervous system which is divided into
two parts – the sympathetic and parasympathetic. This nervous system regulates
how we feel and how our body functions. It causes muscles to tighten and relax, acid
to be produced or suppressed in the stomach, alters the motility of the gut wall, causes
airways to open or constrict and so on.
Anxious breathing with the upper chest stimulates the sympathetic nervous system,
which causes amongst other things the release of adrenaline. This will cause anxiety
to worsen, with palpitations, sweaty hands, tense muscles, raised blood pressure and
closing down of small arteries including those in the frontal lobes of the brain where
complex decisions are made. It will also make blood sugar rise.
Abdominal breathing stimulates the parasympathetic system through the vagus nerve.
This slows the pulse, decreases acid secretion, enables the voice to be louder. It also
interestingly affects the muscles of facial expression allowing a greater range of
expression. This makes socialisation easier. It explains why anxious people
sometimes have a frozen sort of face. Easy breathing helps sleep.
Recommended supporting Reading and CDs
The Mindful way of Overcoming Depression (by Williams et al 2007) is a book
explaining how to overcome depression with a large section on breathing. It also has an
accompanying CD with breathing practices
Positive mental training CDs www.positiverewards.com have been produced by an
Edinburgh GP Dr Alistair Dobbin and have been successful with a wide variety of
patients with the problems listed above. Several of the tracks show the difference effects
caused by breathing in different ways.
Dr AJ Macdonald www.psychsft.freeserve.co.uk
FIVE FINGER EXERCISE
The following exercise has been used very effectively for relaxation. Memorise the following steps, and then
begin. The exercise is attributed to Milton Erickson and is said to bring about a trance state.
Sit comfortably in your chair. Put your hands on your knees. Close your eyes.
Touch your thumb to your index finger. As you do so, go back to a time when your body felt healthy fatigue,
when you had just engaged in an exhilarating physical activity. You might imagine that you had just been
playing tennis or jogging.
Touch your thumb to your middle finger. As you do so, go back to a time when you had a loving experience. It
may have been sexual, it may be a warm embrace, or an intimate conversation.
Touch your thumb to your ring finger. As you do so, go back to the nicest compliment that you have ever
received. Try to really accept it now. By accepting it, you are showing your high regard for the person who said
it. You are really paying them a compliment.
Touch your thumb to your little finger. As you do so, go back to the most beautiful place that you have ever
been. Stay there for a while.
Now open your hands, open your eyes and come back to this room.
The five finger exercise takes less than ten minutes, but pays off with increased vitality, inner peace and self
esteem. It can be done at any time you feel tension. With regular use the hand movements alone will be
enough to trigger the state of relaxation.
Dr AJ Macdonald
June 2003
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 1 of 25
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.
Report on the evidence base of
systemic family therapy
Prepared by Professor Peter Stratton, Leeds Family Therapy and Research Centre, and
Academic and Research Development Officer, Association for Family Therapy.
This report can also be viewed on the AFT website: www.aft.org.uk
Contents
Overview........................................................................................................................ 2
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3
Overviews and meta-analyses of efficacy and effectiveness ......................................... 5
What kinds of family therapy? .................................................................................... 7
Reviews of the effectiveness of Family Therapy for specified conditions....................... 9
Family therapy with children and adolescents............................................................ 9
Family therapy with adults........................................................................................ 10
A sample of specific recent research studies and reviews........................................... 12
Adult Studies ............................................................................................................ 15
Family therapy combined with other treatments........................................................... 16
Conclusions from the evidence.................................................................................... 17
Strategies for making decisions from evidence............................................................ 18
Conclusion: why Family Therapy is an essential provision. ......................................... 21
References................................................................................................................... 22
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 2 of 25
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Overview
As this review demonstrates, Systemic Family Therapy provides effective help for people with an
extraordinarily wide range of difficulties. The range covers childhood conditions such as conduct
and mood disorders, eating disorders, and drug misuse; and in adults, couple difficulties and
severe psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia. Throughout the life span, it is shown to be
effective in treatment and management of depression and chronic physical illness, and the
problems that can arise as families change their constitution or their way of life.
While the range is remarkable, the effectiveness of Family Therapy is perhaps not so
extraordinary. After all, the great majority of families cope with a range of difficulties. Families that
include a child with serious mental health difficulties, for example, have been shown to come to
therapy with substantial strengths and resilience (Allison et al, 2003). So we might expect that a
determined effort by people trained and experienced in mobilising the resources of families that
have reached an impasse would be effective.
A review of the existing evidence base finds substantial evidence for the efficacy and the
effectiveness of family interventions. Where economic analyses have been carried out, family
therapy is found to be no more costly, and sometimes significantly cheaper, than alternative
treatments without loss of efficacy.
There is little evidence of differences in outcome from different kinds of family intervention. This
consistency seems primarily due to the fact that well-trained practitioners draw on a wide variety
of Family Therapy approaches, according to the needs of each case.
There is evidence that Family Therapy has a number of benefits beyond its effectiveness with
referred conditions, including greater acceptability to clients and families, continued improvement
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 3 of 25
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after discharge, and improving compliance with medication when medical and Family Therapy
treatments are combined.
In the light of such a strong evidence base for the effectiveness of Family Therapy, we conclude
that trained family therapists need to be employed not just provide Family Therapy services but
also:
o to support training of future family therapists through supervision;
o to provide training and support for professionals applying specific family interventions such
as Expressed Emotion and Brief Solution Focused approaches;
o to provide supervision and, where appropriate, training of other professionals working with
families;
o to develop the research base of their practice by participating in networked research.
Introduction
The evidence base of family therapy has been generated in two rather different forms – that
provided by controlled outcome trials, and the wider evidence base beyond such formal reviews
Controlled outcome trials compare family therapy with other (or no) treatment for clearly
diagnosed conditions. These studies are likely to fit the requirements of formal reviews, and have
been extensively summarised in meta-analyses. For a number of reasons such research is not
directly applicable to everyday practice in the NHS. Family therapy provision within the NHS and
social services usually has the following characteristics:
o Most clients seen for family therapy, and their families, do not have a single clearly defined
mental health problem.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 4 of 25
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o Family therapists work collaboratively with other colleagues and family therapy is often
combined with other treatments.
o It is carried out by professionals with a range of training in family therapy techniques that can
vary from little or no formal training through to completion of an accredited course and
registration with UKCP as a systemic practitioner.
o Diagnoses are seen as useful information but therapy is not restricted to a specific condition.
This report therefore considers a wider range of evidence than that generated by controlled trials
in specialist units, and we sometimes have to extrapolate from these trials in order to draw
conclusions about the effectiveness of Family Therapy in practice.
A clear general conclusion from the evidence is that Family Therapy is effective in a very wide
range of areas. In certain conditions the evidence is strongest for Family Therapy combined with
other appropriate treatments, whether these be medication, individual, social or educational.
Decisions about the implications for provision that can be drawn from the existing evidence base
need to be made in relation to current forms and availability of Family Therapy. Family Therapy
should be offered by qualified and accredited practitioners. Yet far more family work is needed
than can be provided by the available numbers of qualified and accredited Family Therapists for
the foreseeable future.
While other disciplines have studied the family, or have forms of psychotherapy that can be used
within a family setting, it is family therapists who have the most extensive experience of working in
detail with family difficulties. This experience should be made available to a wider group of
professionals. Evidence-based practice (EBP) approaches can be used to specify effective
approaches to working with families and other relationship groups within the full range of physical
and psychosocial difficulties seen within the NHS and Social Services. Through training,
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 5 of 25
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supervision, support and consultation, Family Therapists in designated posts will be able to make
these approaches available to all who offer family interventions at different levels.
Much effective work with people in their families can be provided by those not formally accredited
as Family Therapists or Systemic Psychotherapists. But this work is only likely to achieve the
necessary standards if other professionals have access to current best practice of family work
through working with, and where appropriate, being guided and supervised by, properly trained
Family Therapists.
Fully trained systemic family therapists (registered with UKCP as Systemic Psychotherapists) will
also be able to offer consultation in productive ways of working within public services, for example
with multidisciplinary teams and through effective collaboration with managers, many of whom will
already be using a systems approach to organisational functioning.
Family therapists and others trained in systemic family therapy are already helping families and
other groups mobilise their resources to tackle difficulties, respecting families’ particular needs
and insights and encouraging family members to find constructive ways to help each other. The
challenge now is to spread this work and training throughout health, education and social care
services.
Overviews and meta-analyses of efficacy and effectiveness
The most general approach to evaluating the evidence of the effectiveness of Family Therapy is
through meta-analyses.
Extensive early analyses by Hazelrigg et al (1987) and Shadish et al (1993) reviewed research
that reflected the weak methodology of many studies of that time. Thus Hazelrigg et al. (1987)
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 6 of 25
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found only 20 of 281 studies that met their criteria. They concluded that Family Therapy does have
a positive effect post treatment, particularly for behavioural measures (mean effect size Cohen's d=
0.50 Vs no treatment controls and d=0.65 Vs alternative treatment controls), but was only slightly
more effective than alternative therapies. Shadish et al (1993) included only trials with random
assignment and distressed participants. Over a 25-year period (1963-1988), 163 studies met these
criteria of which only 71 were of Family Therapy. This study also found a positive effect for Family
Therapy (d = 0.51) but with no difference between immediate post-treatment and follow-up scores.
There was some suggestion that family therapies might do less well than individual therapies for
children and adolescents.
A further limitation in our reliance on earlier studies is that the forms of therapy being researched
would now be regarded as only of historical importance in this rapidly developing field. Even the
most recent research in the Shadish et al (1993) analysis would have been planned in the early
1980s, with the earliest dating from around 1960, yet they classified the 71 Family Therapy studies
into 22 different theoretical models and still had 7 studies left over that they were unable to classify.
Over the past decade the technology of meta-analysis has become more rigorous and increasing
numbers have been published. Shadish & Baldwin (2003) identified 140 meta-analyses in
psychotherapy. Probably the best overview comes from this publication, in which the authors
undertook a meta-analysis of 20 meta-analyses of couple and family therapy. It is thus a meta-
meta-analysis. They conclude that ‘marriage and family therapy is now an empirically supported
therapy in the plain English sense of the phrase - it clearly works, both in general and for a variety
of specific problems.’
More specifically, they conclude:
o Marriage and family interventions are clearly efficacious compared to no treatment.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 7 of 25
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o Those interventions are at least as efficacious as other modalities such as individual therapy,
and may be more effective in at least some cases.
o There is little evidence for differential efficacy among the various approaches within marriage
and family interventions, particularly if mediating and moderating variables are controlled.
What kinds of family therapy?
While Shadish & Baldwin (2003) provide a general and positive answer to the question of whether
systemic family therapy is effective, their third conclusion is particularly relevant to any attempt to
summarise the evidence base.
Family Therapy started from a common basis in systems thinking but has developed in many
directions during its 50-year history. The variety of approaches within current Family Therapy
presents a potential difficulty for an overview. For example, in the Shadish et al (1993) review it is
not possible in most cases to determine the particular approach used during therapy.
While differences between models are enthusiastically championed by theorists and practitioners,
the research findings offer a practical solution to the dilemma of combining findings from these
different approaches. Almost all reviews that have compared outcomes from different Family
Therapy approaches have concluded that there are minimal differences in outcome. An
explanation comes not from the disputed idea that all psychotherapy works (when it does)
because of factors unrelated to the form of therapy itself (Sexton, Ridley, & Kleiner, 2004).
Rather, it seems that in practice, different models of Family Therapy share substantial common
ground.
Pote et al (2003) report on the construction of a Manual of Systemic Family Therapy that was
based on the work of one clinic (Leeds Family Therapy & Research Centre) but checked for
consistency with five other major training institutes in the UK. The analysis of the rationales and
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 8 of 25
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intentions identified by the practitioners show that they draw on techniques from a full range of
current models of Family Therapy. Current models of family therapy pay explicit attention to
issues of culture, ethnicity, gender, discrimination and wider physical and societal contexts.
Henggeler & Sheidow (2003), in reviewing three effective but apparently very different treatments
for adolescent conduct disorder and delinquency (Functional Family Therapy, Multisystemic
Therapy, and Oregon Treatment Foster Care), conclude that ‘they share several commonalities in
their conceptualization, delivery, and procedures’.
Weissman & Sanderson (2002) state that: ‘The efficacy of the various family interventions
(behavioural, supportive, & systems) appear to be equivalent (Baucom, Shoham, Mueser, Daiuto,
& Stickle, 1998). Indeed, the only direct comparison of two evidence-based family interventions
found that supportive family therapy and behavioural family therapy were not significantly
different. These findings are not surprising considering the family intervention strategies across
the three theoretical orientations share many common essential treatment components (Baucom
et al., 1998).’
Pinsof et al. (1995, 1996) reviewed the outcome literature for a variety of presenting difficulties.
They concluded that Family Therapy works, and for some presenting difficulties is more efficacious
than individual interventions (e.g. marital distress, and anorexia in young adolescents), but that
there is as yet no data to support the differential efficacy of different Family Therapy models. Family
Therapy may be more cost effective than residential and inpatient treatments, but may not be
sufficient in itself to address some severe disorders and problems (e.g. Schizophrenia, adolescents’
conduct difficulties). More recent research in these areas is reviewed below.
MCFarlane (2003) reviewing the effectiveness of multiple family/ psychoeducation for people with
schizophrenia calls the title a misnomer because the treatment actually had more aspects of
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 9 of 25
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family intervention. Macdonald, (1997) claimed that systemic psychotherapy often incorporates a
Brief Therapy approach making it a cost-effective modality.
In conclusion, while we are beginning to see research reports that distinguish between different
approaches to therapy, these tend to be based on specialist clinics and the use of manuals to
ensure that particular procedures are followed. In the outcome studies for which meta-analyses
are available, and in the everyday practice of trained family therapists, it is likely that therapists
draw on a wide range of techniques to meet the needs of the therapeutic situation.
Within the field the value of such an approach is being recognised by calls for explicit integration
of approaches (e.g. Rivett & Street, 2003; Vetere & Dallos, 2003). In clinical practice the
integration goes wider with incorporation of psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioural methods
within systemic psychotherapy. But for our current purposes in reviewing the evidence, it makes
sense to group the different forms together under the general heading of “Family Therapy” except
where outcomes are clearly linked to just one specific model of family intervention.
Reviews of the effectiveness of Family Therapy for specified conditions.
There have been several recent, careful reviews that assess the range of evidence available in
relation to specific conditions. The reviews consistently identify certain conditions of children,
adolescents and adults as effectively treated by Family Therapy. As these reviews are readily
available, in this section we simply list the conditions for which Family Therapy is indicated as a
treatment, with additional information where this is likely to be useful.
Family therapy with children and adolescents
Cottrell and Boston (2002) conclude that family interventions are effective for the following:
o Conduct disorders
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 10 of 25
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o Substance misuse
o Eating disorders
o And as a second-line treatment for depression and chronic illness.
From an extensive review Carr (2000a) concluded that there is good evidence in the following
areas:
o Childhood physical abuse and neglect;
o Conduct problems in childhood and adolescence, including oppositional behaviour
o Difficulties and problems with attention and overactivity;
o Drug-related problems;
o Emotional disorders including anxiety, depression and grief following bereavement;
o Psychosomatic problems
Asen (2002), from a more selective review, also concludes that there is strong evidence for using
Family Therapy with conduct problems of children and eating problems in adolescence. Further
detail is provided by Eisler, leGrange, & Asen (2002) who conclude that Family Therapy is an
effective treatment for anorexia nervosa in adolescence. The majority of adolescents suffering
from anorexia nervosa, even when severely ill, can be managed on an outpatient basis providing
the family has an active role in treatment. They felt that family interventions are best viewed as
treatments that mobilise family resources rather than treat family dysfunction (for which there is
little empirical evidence). They also argue that brief, intensive multiple family interventions provide
an important alternative to engaging families in treatment and are viewed very positively by
families.
Family therapy with adults
The review by Asen (2002) had more focus on work with adults. He concluded that the evidence
supported Family Therapy with:
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 11 of 25
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o Psychotic disorders
o Mood disorders
o Drug and alcohol misuse
o Anorexia (adult as well as adolescent) and bulimia
o Distress in couple relationships.
In his second review, concentrating on therapy with adults, Carr (2000b) found good support for
Family Therapy in the following range:
o Chronic pain management
o Management of neurologically impaired adults
o Treatment of psychosexual difficulties
o Marital conflict and distress
o Adult alcohol misuse
o Anxiety disorders
o Agoraphobia with panic disorder
o Obsessive-compulsive disorder
o Major depression and bipolar disorder
Sprenkle (2002) reported effectiveness of Family Therapy with:
o Severe mental illness
o Alcohol and substance misuse
o Relationship dysfunction
o Chronic physical illness.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 12 of 25
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A sample of specific recent research studies and reviews
Reviews and meta-analyses are a convenient source of critical assessments of the evidence
literature. They can be supplemented by more specific and more recent reports which have a
more precise focus and which exemplify current approaches to Family Therapy.
Useful guidance for the UK can be obtained from Department of Health reviews. The National
Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) reports focus on rigorous research. A selection of NICE
recommendations are summarised by Eisler (2005):
o Family interventions should be available to the families of people with schizophrenia who are
living with or in close contact with the service user (NICE, 2002).
o Family interventions that directly address the eating disorder should be offered to children and
adolescents with anorexia nervosa (NICE, 2004a).
o Couple-focused therapy should be considered for patients with depression who have a regular
partner (NICE, 2004b).
Child and Adolescent Studies
Woolfenden, Williams, & Peat (2002) conclude that family and parenting interventions reduce
subsequent arrests and length of time in institutions for youths with conduct disorder and
delinquency.
Wilson & Fairburn (1998) in reviewing treatments for eating disorders, conclude that Family
Therapy is one of the most effective treatments. A major series of studies (Dare et al, 1995;
Eisler, LeGrange & Asen 2002) shows that Family Therapy is effective in the treatment of
adolescent eating disorders. Krautter & Lock (2004) found that manualised Family Therapy was
acceptable to families where an adolescent presented with anorexia
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 13 of 25
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An exemplary research project
One of the most comprehensive research programmes has been carried out by Howard Liddle
and Associates. This series of studies is worth considering in some detail because it shows the
range of information that can be provided by properly funded and rigorous research. The studies
are especially impressive because the therapy was provided for a difficult group of clients
(adolescents, mostly living in poverty, and in disrupted family constellations) with problems that
are difficult to treat (drug misuse and a high level of co-morbidity). The authors have developed a
comprehensive treatment drawing on a wide range of achievements in Family Therapy, called
Multi-Dimensional Family Therapy (MDFT). Their fully documented claims include:
o MDFT has demonstrated better results than several other state-of-the-art treatments,
including family group therapy, peer group treatment, individual cognitive-behavioural therapy
(CBT), and comprehensive residential treatment.
o In addition to successfully treating adolescents who are heavy drug users, MDFT has worked
effectively as a community-based prevention model and has successfully treated younger
adolescents initiating drug use.
o Substance use is significantly reduced in MDFT to a greater extent than all comparison
treatments investigated (between 41% and 66% reduction from intake to discharge).
o Treatment gains are enhanced in MDFT after treatment discharge; MDFT clients continue to
decrease substance use after discharge up to 12-month follow-up, while teens in individual
CBT and residential treatment increase drug use following treatment.
o Psychiatric symptoms show greater reductions during treatment in MDFT (range of 35% to
80% within treatment reduction) than comparison treatments – MDFT clients also continue to
improve following discharge while teens in CBT show relapse of emotional and behavioural
problems after treatment.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 14 of 25
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o School functioning improves more dramatically in MDFT than comparison treatments -- MDFT
clients return to school and receive passing grades at higher rates (43% in MDFT vs. 17% in
family group therapy and 7% in peer group therapy).
o Family functioning improves to a greater extent in MDFT than family group therapy or peer
group therapy using observational measures and these improvements are maintained up to
12-month follow-up.
Treatment Engagement and Retention
o MDFT clients stay in treatment longer than clients in outpatient and residential comparison
treatments. 95% of clients in intensive outpatient MDFT stayed in treatment for 90 days as
compared to 59% in residential.
Cost Savings of Multidimensional Family Therapy
o Average weekly costs of treatment are significantly less for MDFT ($164) than community-
based outpatient treatment ($365) (French et al. 2003).
o An intensive version of MDFT designed as an alternative to residential delivers better
outcomes at 1/3 the cost (average weekly costs of $384 vs. $1,138)
Sample references for this research programme are grouped here:
French, M. T., Roebuck, M. C., Dennis, M., Godley, S., Liddle, H. A., & Tims, F. (2003).
Outpatient marijuana treatment for adolescents: Economic evaluation of a multisite field
experiment. Evaluation Review, 27, 421-459.
Jackson-Gilfort, A., Liddle, H. A., Tejeda, M.J., & Dakof, G. A. (2001). Facilitating engagement of
African-American male adolescents in family therapy: A cultural theme process study.
Journal of Black Psychology, 27(3), 321-340.
Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Parker, K., Diamond, G. S., Barrett, K., & Tejada, M. (2001).
Multidimensional Family Therapy for adolescent substance abuse: Results of a
randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 27, 651–687.
Liddle, H. A., Rowe, C. L., Dakof, G. A., Ungaro, R. A., & Henderson, C. (2004). Early intervention
for adolescent substance abuse: Pretreatment to posttreatment outcomes of a randomized
controlled trial comparing multidimensional family therapy and peer group treatment.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs.
Schmidt, S. E., Liddle, H. A., & Dakof, G. A. (1996). Changes in parenting practices and
adolescent drug abuse during multidimensional family therapy. Journal of Family
Psychology, 10, 12-27.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 15 of 25
m.f…
Adult Studies
Kelley & Fals-Stewart (2002) found couples therapy more effective than individual-based therapy
for men entering treatment for alcohol or drug abuse. The effect was not only stronger for the
client but had greater positive effect on discord within adult couple relationships and the
psychosocial adjustment of the couples’ children.
Byrne Carr &Clark (2004) reviewed panic disorder with agoraphobia. Couples work was effective,
especially if the relationship was good.
The London depression trial (Leff et al, 2000) found that manualised Family Therapy had higher
compliance than CBT or medication, and was more effective and of comparable cost to
medication. Those receiving Family Therapy had better compliance with medication as well as a
reduced probability of relapse.
Weissman (2002), in reviewing evidence-based psychological treatments, concludes that:
‘Overall, when compared to treatment as usual, behavioural, supportive, and systems based
family intervention strategies were efficacious in reducing relapse rates in patients with
schizophrenia (e.g., Falloon, Boyd, & McGill, 1984; Leff et al., 1985; Schooler et al., 1997).’
Burbach and Stanbridge (1998) report on a highly regarded family intervention in psychosis
service, integrating systemic and family management approaches that had high levels of
acceptance (Stanbridge et al, 2003).
Hazel, McDonell, & Short (2004) conclude that multiple family group treatment reduced distress
for caregivers of people with schizophrenia, but did not increase caregivers’ resources compared
with usual care.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 16 of 25
m.f…
A study of adult opiate users found more favourable outcomes for those receiving Family
Therapy, compared with two individually based interventions, particularly for those living with a
partner (Yandoli et al., 2002).
Doyle et al (2003) compared residential with community-based Family Therapy programmes. Both
had very positive results. The residential group were more likely to be total abstainers with bouts
of heavy drinking. Those treated in the community had many more (43%) who were moderate
drinkers but with far fewer bouts of heavy drinking.
Family therapy combined with other treatments
Epstein et al (1988) combined family interventions with drug treatments and showed a more positive
effect in terms of family functioning and symptom resolution than drug therapy alone.
Pilling et al. (2002) states that Family Therapy, in particular single family therapy, had clear
preventative effects on the outcomes of psychotic relapse and readmission, in addition to benefits
in medication compliance. In this study CBT was associated with lower drop-out rates.
Family Therapy can also be a source of necessary collaboration between services. Reder,
McClure, & Jolley (2000) cite the example of a single mother with depression who has a 7-year-
old child with profound sleep disturbance. How likely would it be that the management of both
would be fully integrated without a family-based treatment?
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 17 of 25
m.f…
Conclusions from the evidence
There is strong empirical support for using some form of Family Therapy with a wide range of
conditions.
Researchers differ in their choice of conditions to review and there has been no co-ordination in
the research effort. Some conditions have received significant research funding, and there are
carefully conducted and well-resourced research studies available. In many other areas, research
is patchy or has never been commissioned. There is, therefore, an arbitrariness about the
research base that makes it necessary to extrapolate from those areas that have been well-
researched.
Family Therapy is of proven effectiveness wherever it has been properly researched, and the
conditions of proven effectiveness cover a wide range of difficulties (e.g. distress in couple
relationships, drug dependence and psychosis). It is a treatment with a well-developed theoretical
base, forged through decades of practice in highly varied settings.
Future research directions
The available research into efficacy is generally positive, but the research base is limited. There is
therefore a strong justification for including Family Therapy in future comparison outcome trials,
and for conducting more coherent and rigorous outcome research on Family Therapy.
Efficacy trials are, however, only the start of the story because efficacy does not necessarily
amount to the kind of therapeutic change implied by the term ‘effectiveness’, and the fact that a
treatment produces cost-effective improvements under specialist conditions does not guarantee
effectiveness in everyday practice (Chorpita, 2003). Although effectiveness usually achieves
lower scores than measures of efficacy, controlled trials may underestimate the value of a
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 18 of 25
m.f…
therapy. As Fonagy et al (2004) state “Outcome measures should cover more domains than that
of symptomatology: a treatment may be more effective in the long run if it has a beneficial impact
across other domains of functioning, even if the effect on symptoms is no greater”.
Therapy conducted in controlled conditions by specialists who are often the originators of the
particular approach needs to be followed by trials in more realistic field conditions. Are the
methods still effective when transported to less specialist locations with no input from the
originators? There is a woeful shortage of data on the progression from efficacy through
effectiveness to transportability and one can only speculate about the factors that might be
relevant in maintaining the results shown by research.
Strategies for making decisions from evidence
The evidence base of any area of psychotherapy is a complex mixture of research that
appropriately draws on all five levels of evidence identified by the DoH (1999):
o Type I evidence (at least one good systematic review and randomised controlled trial
(RCT) for a range of problems),
o Type II evidence (at least one good RCT),
o Type III evidence (at least one non-randomised intervention study),
o Type IV evidence (at least one well-designed observational study),
o Type V evidence (expert opinion, particularly of service carers and users).
Because much of the research by Family Therapists needs to use rigorous qualitative methods,
these studies must be evaluated according to the relevant criteria. Lincoln & Guba (1985)
formulate these as credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. Qualitative criteria
are further discussed by Robson (2002).
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 19 of 25
m.f…
The range of what needs to be considered is indicated by the document “Psychological Therapies
Working in Partnership” (NHS Executive, 2000) which advocates that choice of treatment be
informed by psychological formulation, clinical judgement, research indications, user preferences
and cost efficiency rather than diagnosis or presenting symptoms alone. Sackett’s (1996)
conclusions about evidence-based medicine include: ‘The practice of EBM means integrating
individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic
research.’
We would propose four types of sources that should converge in deciding when Family Therapy is
the treatment of choice:
Source 1: Evidence
o Evidence that it works best for this condition.
o Evidence it works for similar conditions, and no contrary evidence for this condition.
o Evidence that family treatment is synergistic with other treatments that will be used.
Source 2: Nature of the condition
The condition is understood in terms such that Family Therapy is most appropriate. E.g.
dependence on the family for sustaining treatment; known to be exacerbated by certain forms of
family functioning that are likely to be present; is largely defined in terms of family relationships;
arises from family life stage.
Further reasons are provided in ‘Treatment Choice in Psychological Therapies and Counselling’
(DoH, 2001) and relate to the decision whether to refer out of primary care (to either a community
mental health team [CMHT] or psychotherapy service). Criteria include: history of severe trauma,
where previous attempts to treat at primary care level have been unsuccessful, or where the
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 20 of 25
m.f…
appropriate service is not available in primary care. This is likely to include patients with complex
social/family problems, severe depression, anxiety or social dysfunction, and co-morbidity.
The report also states that: “Patient preference or demand for a secondary service should also be
taken into account”, leading to:
Source 3:Acceptability
Examples can be taken from the DoH website: Patient choice. Giving patients more choice about
how, when and where they receive treatment is a cornerstone of the Government’s health
strategy.
This strategy paper draws out and develops the main themes that emerged from the “Choice,
Responsiveness and Equity” consultation, which closed on 11 November 2003. It broadly sets out
how the Government aims to make NHS services more responsive to patients, by offering more
choice across the spectrum of healthcare. Its main aim is to improve patient and user experience
and build new partnerships between those who use health and social care and those who work in
them.
The section of this report reviewing evidence pointed to findings of greater acceptability to clients
of family-based therapy. Cottrell and Boston (2002) conclude that there is evidence that systemic
therapies may reduce drop-put and increase consumer satisfaction with therapies.
Source 4: Family Therapy can be delivered
In any particular situation Family Therapy can only be considered if it can realistically be
delivered. As already discussed, the availability of trained family therapists is crucial but once this
resource is available it becomes practical, and ethical, to also have family interventions provided
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 21 of 25
m.f…
by other professionals whose practice can be planned, supervised and kept up-to-date by the
registered family therapist(s). The model here follows well-established approaches of cascading
expertise. It is not the only route to providing clients with this essential resource, but for many
services it is likely to be the most practical.
Conclusion: why Family Therapy is an essential provision.
While this review attempts a balanced assessment of evidence it has been written by researchers
and practitioners from a position that systemic family therapy is an important part of the provision
for people who are coping with mental health and other problems. However, that conviction itself
has developed from the range of accepted sources described in the previous sections.
There is strong evidence of both efficacy and effectiveness in a range of specific conditions.
Family Therapy is used for an extremely wide range of problems, many without a clear (DSM-
type) diagnostic definition, so there is no prospect that there will be evidence for every application
of the approach to treatment. However, if we take the conditions that have been researched as
representative, then we can deduce the range of problems for which it would be appropriate to
expect Family Therapy to be effective.
In summary, reasons to ensure and expand provision of Family Therapy include:
o It has proven effectiveness for those conditions for which it has been properly researched.
o There is very substantial supportive evidence for its effectiveness from diverse research
and clinical experience.
o Trained family therapists draw on a good range of approaches with clear theoretical
rationales. Current models of family therapy pay explicit attention to issues of culture,
ethnicity, gender, discrimination and wider physical and societal contexts.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 22 of 25
m.f…
o Responsive and effective therapy for families in the UK needs to develop through practice
in the UK, rather than relying on methods developed by practitioners in the USA and
elsewhere.
o Properly trained family therapists have transferable skills in relation to team working,
consultation, organisation etc.
o Family therapists can support other professionals in their work with families.
References.
Allison, S., Stacey, K., Dadds, V., Roeger, L., Wood, A., & Martin, G. (2003) What the family
brings: gathering evidence for strengths-based work. Journal of Family Therapy. 25, 263-
284.
Asen, E. (2002) Outcome research in family therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 8, 230-
238
Baucom, D. H., Shoham. V., Muescr, K. T., Daiuto, A. D., & Stickle, T. R. (1998). Empirically
supported couple and family interventions for marital distress and adult mental health
problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 53-58.
Byrne, M., Carr, M., Clark, M (2004) The efficacy of couples-based interventions for panic
disorder with agoraphobia. Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 105-125
Burbach, R. F. and Stanbridge, R. I., (1998) "A family therapy intervention in psychosis service
integrating the systemic and family management approaches", Journal of Family Therapy,
20, 311-325.
Carr (2000a) Evidence-Based Practice in Family Therapy and Systemic Consultation I: Child
focused problems. Journal of Family Therapy. 22. 29-60.
Carr (2000b) Evidence-Based Practice in Family Therapy and Systemic Consultation II: Adult
focused problems. Journal of Family Therapy. 22. 273-295.
Chorpita, B. F. (2003). The frontier of evidence-based practice In A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz
(Eds.), Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (pp. 42–59). New
York: Guilford Press.
Colaban, M. and Robinson, P. H. (2002) “Multi-family groups in the treatment of young adults
with eating disorders”, Journal of Family Therapy, 24, 17-30.
Cottrell, D. and Boston, P. (2002) Practitioner Review: The Effectiveness of Systemic Family
Therapy for Children and Adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 43:5,
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Dare, C., Eisler, I., Colaban, M., Crowther, C., Senior, R. and Asen, A. (1995) “The listening heart
and the chi square: clinical and empirical perceptions in the family therapy of anorexia
nervosa”, Journal of Family Therapy, 17, 31-57.
Department of Health (2001) Treatment choice in psychological therapies and counselling:
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http://www.doh.gov.uk/mentalhealth/treatmentguideline/treatment.pdf
Doyle, M, Carr, A, Rowen, S, Galvin, P, Lyons, S & Cooney, G. (2003) Family oriented treatment
for people with alcohol problems in Ireland: a comparison of the effectiveness of
residential and community based programmes. Journal of Family Therapy 25, 15-40.
Eisler, I. (2005) Editorial: A rose by any other name. Journal of Family Therapy. 27: 1–2
Eisler, I., leGrange, D., & Asen, E., (2002) Family Interventions. In J. Treasure, U. Schmidt and
E. van Furth (Eds) Handbook of Eating Disorders. Wiley, Chichester.
Fonagy P (2002) What works for whom? : a critical review of treatments for children and
adolescents. London, Guilford.
Fonagy, P. Target, M. Cottrell, D. Phillips J. and Kurtz. Z (2004) Evidence Based Child Mental
Health: A Comprehensive Review of Treatment Interventions. New York: Guilford
Hazel N. A, McDonell M. G, Short R. A, (2004) Impact of multiple-family groups for outpatients
with schizophrenia on caregivers’ distress and resources. Psychiatr Serv 55:35–41
Hazelrigg, M. D., Cooper, H. M., & Borduin, C. M. (1987). Evaluating the effectiveness of family
therapies: An integrative review and analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 428-442.
Henggeler, S. W., & Sheidow, A. J. (2002). Conduct disorder and delinquency. In D. H. Sprenkle
(Ed.), Effectiveness research in marriage and family therapy (pp. 27-51). Washington, DC:
AAMFT.
Kelley M. L., & Fals-Stewart W. (2002) Couples- versus individual-based therapy for alcohol and
drug abuse: effects on children’s psychosocial functioning. J Consult Clin Psychol
70:417–427
Krautter T., & Lock, J. (2004) Is manualized family-based treatment for adolescent anorexia
nervosa acceptable to patients? Patient satisfaction at the end of treatment. Journal of
Family Therapy.26. 66-82.
Leff, J, Berkowitz, R Shavit, N. et al. (1989) "A trial of family therapy versus a relative's group for
schizophrenics." British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 58-66
Leff, J., Vearnals, S., Brewin, C. R., Wolff, G., Alexander, B., Asen, E., Dayson, D., Jones, E.,
Chisholm, D. and Everitt, B. (2000). "The London Depression Intervention Trial:
Randomised controlled trial of antidepressants v. couple therapy in the treatment and
maintenance of people with depression living with a partner: clinical outcome and costs".
British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 95-100
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. New York: Sage.
AFT, 2005 Evidence base 24 of 25
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Macdonald A.J. (1997) Brief therapy in adult psychiatry: further outcomes. Journal of Family
Therapy, 19, 213-222.
McFarlane WR, Dixon L, Lukens E, (2003) Family psychoeducation and schizophrenia: a review
of the literature. J Marital Fam Ther 29:223–45
McFarlane WR. Multiple family groups in the treatment of severe psychiatric disorders. New York:
The Guilford Press, 2002.
NHS Executive, (2000) “Psychological Therapies Working in Partnership”
NICE (2002) Schizophrenia: Core Interventions in the Treatment and Management of
Schizophrenia in Primary and Secondary Care. London: National Institute of Clinical
Excellence.
NICE (2004a) Eating Disorders: Core Interventions in the Treatment and Management of
Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa and Related Eating Disorders. London: National
Institute of Clinical Excellence.
NICE (2004b) Depression: Management of Depression in Primary and Secondary Care. London:
National Institute of Clinical Excellence.
Ogden, T & Halliday-Boykins, C. A. (2004) Multisystemic treatment of antisocial adolescents in
Norway: Replication of clinical outcomes outside of the US. Child and Adolescent Mental
Health. 9, 77-83.
Pilling; S.; Bebbington, P.; Kuipers, E.; Garety, P.; Geddes, J.; Orbach, G. and Morgan, C. (2002)
Psychological treatments in schizophrenia : 1. Meta-analysis of family intervention and
cognitive behaviour therapy. Psychological medicine 32 763-782.
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therapy: Findings, conclusions, and recommendations. Psychotherapy, 33, 2.
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Reder, P, McClure, M, Jolley, A (2000) Family Matters: Interfaces between Child and Adult mental
Health, Routledge: London).
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Robson, C (2002) Real world research : a resource for social scientists and practitioner-
researchers. Blackwell, Oxford
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…ends…

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Dr venitia young

  • 1. STRESS FAMILY PERSONALITY WORK FINANCE HOUSING STEROIDS ADRENALINEDiarrhoea Sweating Raised BP Inc. pulse/palpitations Breathing Brain Dec CO2 Increased muscle tension Stiffness Migraine IBS Asthma Angina Feel awful Negative thoughts Solutions: Problem Solving Worry Time Counselling Exercise Diet Relaxation Meditation Yoga/Pilates/Tai Chai Breathing Blood flow to frontal lobe dec. Tunnel – black and white thinking Avoidance
  • 2. Recommended reading for Primary Care For Clinicians, Counsellors and Therapists ‘10 minutes for the Family’ Asen, Tomson, Tomson and Young 2004 Routledge Beyond Depression Chris Dowrick Narrative-based Primary Care John Launer 2002 Radcliffe Medical Press The 15 minute hour Stuart and Lieberman Human Givens Joe Griffin and Ivan Tyrell 2006 HG publishing Thinking about Patients David Misselbrook 2001 Petroc Press General Practice - Demanding Work Waller and Hodgkin 2000 Reflective practice Gillie Bolton 2005 Sage Publications Family Oriented Primary Care Susan McDaniel et al 2005 Springer Narrative Medicine, Coyote Medicine, Coyote Healing, Coyote Wisdom - Lewis Mehl Madrona The Biology of Belief Bruce Lipton 2005 Cygnus Books Love and Survival Dean Ornish 1998 Vermilion Love Medicine and Miracles Bernie Siegal 1988 Arrow Presence: exploring profound change in people organisations and society Peter Senge The Mindful Way through Depression Mark Williams, John Teasdale, Zindel Segal and Jon Kabat Zin 2007 Guilford Press Molecules of Emotion Candace Peart 1998
  • 3. Self-help books for clinicians, counsellors, therapists and patients Women who love too much Robin Norwood (Addictive relationships) A Woman in your own Right Anne Dickson (Common sense approach to assertivemess/empowerment) Children of Alcoholics David Stafford Marriage on the Rocks Janet Woiktitz (Alcohol and co-dependent relationships) Freedom from addiction Griffin and Tyrell (Covers all addictions) Trapped in the Mirror Elan Golomb (Living with narcissistic parents) Children of the Self-absorbed Nina Brown (Narcissistic parents) We are all in shock Stephanie Mines (Trauma and healing the body) The Gift of Life, Living Magically, Wild Love and Pure Bliss by Gill Edwards (spiritual but non-religious approaches to healing and self-development) Stop walking on Eggshells Mason and Kreger (Deliberate self-harm and living with personality disorder) Eating Less Gillian Riley The Miracle of Mindfulness Thich Nhat Hanh The Presence Process Michael Brown (Managing chronic pain) Families and How to Survive Them Skynner and Cleese Women who run with the Wolves Clarissa Pinkola Estes (Understanding the depth of folk stories from an analytical perspective) Waking the Tiger: Healing Trauma. The innate capacity to transform overwhelming experiences Peter Levine (Sexual abuse) The Emotionally Unavailable Man – a blueprint for healing Patti Henry 2004 Rainbow Books (includes the man’s perspective and the woman’s perspective) Getting Better Bit(e) by Bit(e) Schmidt and Treasure (Eating disorders for sufferers and carers) Grieving Mindfully Sameet Kumar Asperger’s Syndrome Tony Attwood Jessica Kingsley The Essential Difference Simon Baron-Cohen
  • 5. Easy breathing. Breathing is something we take for granted. We presume that because we have done it all our lives then we must be doing it OK, but this is not at all the case. Are you someone who suffers from asthma, COPD? If so you certainly will have problems with breathing. What is less well known is that people suffering from anxiety, depression, IBS (irritable bowel syndrome), angina, CHD, headaches, migraine, neck and shoulder pain, muscle aches and pains and many more vague and medically unexplained symptoms also have problems with not breathing properly. Attention to breathing has been recognised as being important by many eastern traditions like Buddhism and yoga. It is also part of much meditation and relaxation practice. Paying attention to proper breathing, even after a life-time of poor breathing, works. Patients have commented: “I can control my worried thoughts with 5 breaths now – they just go pop and disappear. I’m so proud of myself “. (64year old with a previously severe anxiety disorder) “I can control my angina when I’m stressed. I’ve never breathed properly all my life. This is amazing.” (55 year old man with CHD) “I’m so much calmer. I practice breathing several times a day now.” (22yr old man with anxiety problems). “My post-herpetic neuralgia feels less of a problem, when I’m breathing properly.” (60 year old man) “I’m astounded that my oxygen saturation level goes up to normal when I’m breathing more slowly.” (55 year old woman with asthma just having had a course of steroids and thinking she wasn’t better). What might you be doing that is not helpful? Breathing from the top part of your chest and not using your diaphragm Not breathing into the sides of your chest and the back of your chest Breathing too fast (hyperventilation) Not allowing a gap between the in breath and the out breath Panicking about your breathing Forcing your breath out Why does this matter? If you breathe from the top of your chest, you hold your shoulder and neck tightly and increase the feeling of bodily tension. If you don’t expand your lungs fully oxygen doesn’t get into you blood stream as effectively If you breathe too fast you blow off too much carbon dioxide. This hyperventilation can cause: feelings of unreality, faintness/dizziness, numbness and tingling especially around the mouth an in the hands, muscle tightening especially of the breathing muscles (and so a feeling of not being able to breathe), muscles spasms called tetany, amongst many other symptoms.
  • 6. If you over-breathe chronically you can lose magnesium through your kidneys as they try to compensate for the chemical imbalance. This then contributes to a feeling of tiredness and unwellness. How should you breathe? When at rest the most restful breathing rate is between 6-8 breaths per minute. This takes a little practice to achieve. Lie down and practice trying to breathe with just your abdominal muscles. Let your shoulders relax down and relax your neck muscles. Make sure your out breath is a letting go breath and isn’t forced. Now sit up and try breathing abdominally not moving your upper chest at all. Start by practicing 7/11 breathing. Count to seven on the breath in and 11 on the breath out. Do this for 5 breaths. Notice how you feel, have a little rest and then try again until it feels more comfortable. Repeat this several times a day. Some people are more comfortable with breathing round a square. Imagine a square where each sided represents one of the following parts of the breathing cycle. Breathe in to the count of 5. Hold your breath to the count of 5. Breathe out to the count of five. Hold your breath for the count of five. As you are breathing imagine the square getting bigger, as you slow the rate of counting down. Imagine when you are breathing that you are breathing oxygen into different parts of your body, particularly if there are parts that are painful and tense. Some people can imagine the breath in a healing colour and find this very effective. Once you are good at breathing with just your abdominal muscles, let your chest muscles relax so that you can breathe into your back and breathe out sideways. Imagine that you are breathing with your whole body. Imagine that you are breathing in and out through your heart. Keep a regular check on your breathing throughout the day, every day. Abnormalities of breathing may be the first signs of some stress. Catch it early! How does this work? There is a part of the body called the autonomic nervous system which is divided into two parts – the sympathetic and parasympathetic. This nervous system regulates how we feel and how our body functions. It causes muscles to tighten and relax, acid to be produced or suppressed in the stomach, alters the motility of the gut wall, causes airways to open or constrict and so on.
  • 7. Anxious breathing with the upper chest stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, which causes amongst other things the release of adrenaline. This will cause anxiety to worsen, with palpitations, sweaty hands, tense muscles, raised blood pressure and closing down of small arteries including those in the frontal lobes of the brain where complex decisions are made. It will also make blood sugar rise. Abdominal breathing stimulates the parasympathetic system through the vagus nerve. This slows the pulse, decreases acid secretion, enables the voice to be louder. It also interestingly affects the muscles of facial expression allowing a greater range of expression. This makes socialisation easier. It explains why anxious people sometimes have a frozen sort of face. Easy breathing helps sleep. Recommended supporting Reading and CDs The Mindful way of Overcoming Depression (by Williams et al 2007) is a book explaining how to overcome depression with a large section on breathing. It also has an accompanying CD with breathing practices Positive mental training CDs www.positiverewards.com have been produced by an Edinburgh GP Dr Alistair Dobbin and have been successful with a wide variety of patients with the problems listed above. Several of the tracks show the difference effects caused by breathing in different ways.
  • 8. Dr AJ Macdonald www.psychsft.freeserve.co.uk FIVE FINGER EXERCISE The following exercise has been used very effectively for relaxation. Memorise the following steps, and then begin. The exercise is attributed to Milton Erickson and is said to bring about a trance state. Sit comfortably in your chair. Put your hands on your knees. Close your eyes. Touch your thumb to your index finger. As you do so, go back to a time when your body felt healthy fatigue, when you had just engaged in an exhilarating physical activity. You might imagine that you had just been playing tennis or jogging. Touch your thumb to your middle finger. As you do so, go back to a time when you had a loving experience. It may have been sexual, it may be a warm embrace, or an intimate conversation. Touch your thumb to your ring finger. As you do so, go back to the nicest compliment that you have ever received. Try to really accept it now. By accepting it, you are showing your high regard for the person who said it. You are really paying them a compliment. Touch your thumb to your little finger. As you do so, go back to the most beautiful place that you have ever been. Stay there for a while. Now open your hands, open your eyes and come back to this room. The five finger exercise takes less than ten minutes, but pays off with increased vitality, inner peace and self esteem. It can be done at any time you feel tension. With regular use the hand movements alone will be enough to trigger the state of relaxation. Dr AJ Macdonald June 2003
  • 9. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 1 of 25 m.f… . Report on the evidence base of systemic family therapy Prepared by Professor Peter Stratton, Leeds Family Therapy and Research Centre, and Academic and Research Development Officer, Association for Family Therapy. This report can also be viewed on the AFT website: www.aft.org.uk Contents Overview........................................................................................................................ 2 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3 Overviews and meta-analyses of efficacy and effectiveness ......................................... 5 What kinds of family therapy? .................................................................................... 7 Reviews of the effectiveness of Family Therapy for specified conditions....................... 9 Family therapy with children and adolescents............................................................ 9 Family therapy with adults........................................................................................ 10 A sample of specific recent research studies and reviews........................................... 12 Adult Studies ............................................................................................................ 15 Family therapy combined with other treatments........................................................... 16 Conclusions from the evidence.................................................................................... 17 Strategies for making decisions from evidence............................................................ 18 Conclusion: why Family Therapy is an essential provision. ......................................... 21 References................................................................................................................... 22
  • 10. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 2 of 25 m.f… Overview As this review demonstrates, Systemic Family Therapy provides effective help for people with an extraordinarily wide range of difficulties. The range covers childhood conditions such as conduct and mood disorders, eating disorders, and drug misuse; and in adults, couple difficulties and severe psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia. Throughout the life span, it is shown to be effective in treatment and management of depression and chronic physical illness, and the problems that can arise as families change their constitution or their way of life. While the range is remarkable, the effectiveness of Family Therapy is perhaps not so extraordinary. After all, the great majority of families cope with a range of difficulties. Families that include a child with serious mental health difficulties, for example, have been shown to come to therapy with substantial strengths and resilience (Allison et al, 2003). So we might expect that a determined effort by people trained and experienced in mobilising the resources of families that have reached an impasse would be effective. A review of the existing evidence base finds substantial evidence for the efficacy and the effectiveness of family interventions. Where economic analyses have been carried out, family therapy is found to be no more costly, and sometimes significantly cheaper, than alternative treatments without loss of efficacy. There is little evidence of differences in outcome from different kinds of family intervention. This consistency seems primarily due to the fact that well-trained practitioners draw on a wide variety of Family Therapy approaches, according to the needs of each case. There is evidence that Family Therapy has a number of benefits beyond its effectiveness with referred conditions, including greater acceptability to clients and families, continued improvement
  • 11. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 3 of 25 m.f… after discharge, and improving compliance with medication when medical and Family Therapy treatments are combined. In the light of such a strong evidence base for the effectiveness of Family Therapy, we conclude that trained family therapists need to be employed not just provide Family Therapy services but also: o to support training of future family therapists through supervision; o to provide training and support for professionals applying specific family interventions such as Expressed Emotion and Brief Solution Focused approaches; o to provide supervision and, where appropriate, training of other professionals working with families; o to develop the research base of their practice by participating in networked research. Introduction The evidence base of family therapy has been generated in two rather different forms – that provided by controlled outcome trials, and the wider evidence base beyond such formal reviews Controlled outcome trials compare family therapy with other (or no) treatment for clearly diagnosed conditions. These studies are likely to fit the requirements of formal reviews, and have been extensively summarised in meta-analyses. For a number of reasons such research is not directly applicable to everyday practice in the NHS. Family therapy provision within the NHS and social services usually has the following characteristics: o Most clients seen for family therapy, and their families, do not have a single clearly defined mental health problem.
  • 12. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 4 of 25 m.f… o Family therapists work collaboratively with other colleagues and family therapy is often combined with other treatments. o It is carried out by professionals with a range of training in family therapy techniques that can vary from little or no formal training through to completion of an accredited course and registration with UKCP as a systemic practitioner. o Diagnoses are seen as useful information but therapy is not restricted to a specific condition. This report therefore considers a wider range of evidence than that generated by controlled trials in specialist units, and we sometimes have to extrapolate from these trials in order to draw conclusions about the effectiveness of Family Therapy in practice. A clear general conclusion from the evidence is that Family Therapy is effective in a very wide range of areas. In certain conditions the evidence is strongest for Family Therapy combined with other appropriate treatments, whether these be medication, individual, social or educational. Decisions about the implications for provision that can be drawn from the existing evidence base need to be made in relation to current forms and availability of Family Therapy. Family Therapy should be offered by qualified and accredited practitioners. Yet far more family work is needed than can be provided by the available numbers of qualified and accredited Family Therapists for the foreseeable future. While other disciplines have studied the family, or have forms of psychotherapy that can be used within a family setting, it is family therapists who have the most extensive experience of working in detail with family difficulties. This experience should be made available to a wider group of professionals. Evidence-based practice (EBP) approaches can be used to specify effective approaches to working with families and other relationship groups within the full range of physical and psychosocial difficulties seen within the NHS and Social Services. Through training,
  • 13. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 5 of 25 m.f… supervision, support and consultation, Family Therapists in designated posts will be able to make these approaches available to all who offer family interventions at different levels. Much effective work with people in their families can be provided by those not formally accredited as Family Therapists or Systemic Psychotherapists. But this work is only likely to achieve the necessary standards if other professionals have access to current best practice of family work through working with, and where appropriate, being guided and supervised by, properly trained Family Therapists. Fully trained systemic family therapists (registered with UKCP as Systemic Psychotherapists) will also be able to offer consultation in productive ways of working within public services, for example with multidisciplinary teams and through effective collaboration with managers, many of whom will already be using a systems approach to organisational functioning. Family therapists and others trained in systemic family therapy are already helping families and other groups mobilise their resources to tackle difficulties, respecting families’ particular needs and insights and encouraging family members to find constructive ways to help each other. The challenge now is to spread this work and training throughout health, education and social care services. Overviews and meta-analyses of efficacy and effectiveness The most general approach to evaluating the evidence of the effectiveness of Family Therapy is through meta-analyses. Extensive early analyses by Hazelrigg et al (1987) and Shadish et al (1993) reviewed research that reflected the weak methodology of many studies of that time. Thus Hazelrigg et al. (1987)
  • 14. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 6 of 25 m.f… found only 20 of 281 studies that met their criteria. They concluded that Family Therapy does have a positive effect post treatment, particularly for behavioural measures (mean effect size Cohen's d= 0.50 Vs no treatment controls and d=0.65 Vs alternative treatment controls), but was only slightly more effective than alternative therapies. Shadish et al (1993) included only trials with random assignment and distressed participants. Over a 25-year period (1963-1988), 163 studies met these criteria of which only 71 were of Family Therapy. This study also found a positive effect for Family Therapy (d = 0.51) but with no difference between immediate post-treatment and follow-up scores. There was some suggestion that family therapies might do less well than individual therapies for children and adolescents. A further limitation in our reliance on earlier studies is that the forms of therapy being researched would now be regarded as only of historical importance in this rapidly developing field. Even the most recent research in the Shadish et al (1993) analysis would have been planned in the early 1980s, with the earliest dating from around 1960, yet they classified the 71 Family Therapy studies into 22 different theoretical models and still had 7 studies left over that they were unable to classify. Over the past decade the technology of meta-analysis has become more rigorous and increasing numbers have been published. Shadish & Baldwin (2003) identified 140 meta-analyses in psychotherapy. Probably the best overview comes from this publication, in which the authors undertook a meta-analysis of 20 meta-analyses of couple and family therapy. It is thus a meta- meta-analysis. They conclude that ‘marriage and family therapy is now an empirically supported therapy in the plain English sense of the phrase - it clearly works, both in general and for a variety of specific problems.’ More specifically, they conclude: o Marriage and family interventions are clearly efficacious compared to no treatment.
  • 15. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 7 of 25 m.f… o Those interventions are at least as efficacious as other modalities such as individual therapy, and may be more effective in at least some cases. o There is little evidence for differential efficacy among the various approaches within marriage and family interventions, particularly if mediating and moderating variables are controlled. What kinds of family therapy? While Shadish & Baldwin (2003) provide a general and positive answer to the question of whether systemic family therapy is effective, their third conclusion is particularly relevant to any attempt to summarise the evidence base. Family Therapy started from a common basis in systems thinking but has developed in many directions during its 50-year history. The variety of approaches within current Family Therapy presents a potential difficulty for an overview. For example, in the Shadish et al (1993) review it is not possible in most cases to determine the particular approach used during therapy. While differences between models are enthusiastically championed by theorists and practitioners, the research findings offer a practical solution to the dilemma of combining findings from these different approaches. Almost all reviews that have compared outcomes from different Family Therapy approaches have concluded that there are minimal differences in outcome. An explanation comes not from the disputed idea that all psychotherapy works (when it does) because of factors unrelated to the form of therapy itself (Sexton, Ridley, & Kleiner, 2004). Rather, it seems that in practice, different models of Family Therapy share substantial common ground. Pote et al (2003) report on the construction of a Manual of Systemic Family Therapy that was based on the work of one clinic (Leeds Family Therapy & Research Centre) but checked for consistency with five other major training institutes in the UK. The analysis of the rationales and
  • 16. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 8 of 25 m.f… intentions identified by the practitioners show that they draw on techniques from a full range of current models of Family Therapy. Current models of family therapy pay explicit attention to issues of culture, ethnicity, gender, discrimination and wider physical and societal contexts. Henggeler & Sheidow (2003), in reviewing three effective but apparently very different treatments for adolescent conduct disorder and delinquency (Functional Family Therapy, Multisystemic Therapy, and Oregon Treatment Foster Care), conclude that ‘they share several commonalities in their conceptualization, delivery, and procedures’. Weissman & Sanderson (2002) state that: ‘The efficacy of the various family interventions (behavioural, supportive, & systems) appear to be equivalent (Baucom, Shoham, Mueser, Daiuto, & Stickle, 1998). Indeed, the only direct comparison of two evidence-based family interventions found that supportive family therapy and behavioural family therapy were not significantly different. These findings are not surprising considering the family intervention strategies across the three theoretical orientations share many common essential treatment components (Baucom et al., 1998).’ Pinsof et al. (1995, 1996) reviewed the outcome literature for a variety of presenting difficulties. They concluded that Family Therapy works, and for some presenting difficulties is more efficacious than individual interventions (e.g. marital distress, and anorexia in young adolescents), but that there is as yet no data to support the differential efficacy of different Family Therapy models. Family Therapy may be more cost effective than residential and inpatient treatments, but may not be sufficient in itself to address some severe disorders and problems (e.g. Schizophrenia, adolescents’ conduct difficulties). More recent research in these areas is reviewed below. MCFarlane (2003) reviewing the effectiveness of multiple family/ psychoeducation for people with schizophrenia calls the title a misnomer because the treatment actually had more aspects of
  • 17. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 9 of 25 m.f… family intervention. Macdonald, (1997) claimed that systemic psychotherapy often incorporates a Brief Therapy approach making it a cost-effective modality. In conclusion, while we are beginning to see research reports that distinguish between different approaches to therapy, these tend to be based on specialist clinics and the use of manuals to ensure that particular procedures are followed. In the outcome studies for which meta-analyses are available, and in the everyday practice of trained family therapists, it is likely that therapists draw on a wide range of techniques to meet the needs of the therapeutic situation. Within the field the value of such an approach is being recognised by calls for explicit integration of approaches (e.g. Rivett & Street, 2003; Vetere & Dallos, 2003). In clinical practice the integration goes wider with incorporation of psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioural methods within systemic psychotherapy. But for our current purposes in reviewing the evidence, it makes sense to group the different forms together under the general heading of “Family Therapy” except where outcomes are clearly linked to just one specific model of family intervention. Reviews of the effectiveness of Family Therapy for specified conditions. There have been several recent, careful reviews that assess the range of evidence available in relation to specific conditions. The reviews consistently identify certain conditions of children, adolescents and adults as effectively treated by Family Therapy. As these reviews are readily available, in this section we simply list the conditions for which Family Therapy is indicated as a treatment, with additional information where this is likely to be useful. Family therapy with children and adolescents Cottrell and Boston (2002) conclude that family interventions are effective for the following: o Conduct disorders
  • 18. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 10 of 25 m.f… o Substance misuse o Eating disorders o And as a second-line treatment for depression and chronic illness. From an extensive review Carr (2000a) concluded that there is good evidence in the following areas: o Childhood physical abuse and neglect; o Conduct problems in childhood and adolescence, including oppositional behaviour o Difficulties and problems with attention and overactivity; o Drug-related problems; o Emotional disorders including anxiety, depression and grief following bereavement; o Psychosomatic problems Asen (2002), from a more selective review, also concludes that there is strong evidence for using Family Therapy with conduct problems of children and eating problems in adolescence. Further detail is provided by Eisler, leGrange, & Asen (2002) who conclude that Family Therapy is an effective treatment for anorexia nervosa in adolescence. The majority of adolescents suffering from anorexia nervosa, even when severely ill, can be managed on an outpatient basis providing the family has an active role in treatment. They felt that family interventions are best viewed as treatments that mobilise family resources rather than treat family dysfunction (for which there is little empirical evidence). They also argue that brief, intensive multiple family interventions provide an important alternative to engaging families in treatment and are viewed very positively by families. Family therapy with adults The review by Asen (2002) had more focus on work with adults. He concluded that the evidence supported Family Therapy with:
  • 19. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 11 of 25 m.f… o Psychotic disorders o Mood disorders o Drug and alcohol misuse o Anorexia (adult as well as adolescent) and bulimia o Distress in couple relationships. In his second review, concentrating on therapy with adults, Carr (2000b) found good support for Family Therapy in the following range: o Chronic pain management o Management of neurologically impaired adults o Treatment of psychosexual difficulties o Marital conflict and distress o Adult alcohol misuse o Anxiety disorders o Agoraphobia with panic disorder o Obsessive-compulsive disorder o Major depression and bipolar disorder Sprenkle (2002) reported effectiveness of Family Therapy with: o Severe mental illness o Alcohol and substance misuse o Relationship dysfunction o Chronic physical illness.
  • 20. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 12 of 25 m.f… A sample of specific recent research studies and reviews Reviews and meta-analyses are a convenient source of critical assessments of the evidence literature. They can be supplemented by more specific and more recent reports which have a more precise focus and which exemplify current approaches to Family Therapy. Useful guidance for the UK can be obtained from Department of Health reviews. The National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) reports focus on rigorous research. A selection of NICE recommendations are summarised by Eisler (2005): o Family interventions should be available to the families of people with schizophrenia who are living with or in close contact with the service user (NICE, 2002). o Family interventions that directly address the eating disorder should be offered to children and adolescents with anorexia nervosa (NICE, 2004a). o Couple-focused therapy should be considered for patients with depression who have a regular partner (NICE, 2004b). Child and Adolescent Studies Woolfenden, Williams, & Peat (2002) conclude that family and parenting interventions reduce subsequent arrests and length of time in institutions for youths with conduct disorder and delinquency. Wilson & Fairburn (1998) in reviewing treatments for eating disorders, conclude that Family Therapy is one of the most effective treatments. A major series of studies (Dare et al, 1995; Eisler, LeGrange & Asen 2002) shows that Family Therapy is effective in the treatment of adolescent eating disorders. Krautter & Lock (2004) found that manualised Family Therapy was acceptable to families where an adolescent presented with anorexia
  • 21. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 13 of 25 m.f… An exemplary research project One of the most comprehensive research programmes has been carried out by Howard Liddle and Associates. This series of studies is worth considering in some detail because it shows the range of information that can be provided by properly funded and rigorous research. The studies are especially impressive because the therapy was provided for a difficult group of clients (adolescents, mostly living in poverty, and in disrupted family constellations) with problems that are difficult to treat (drug misuse and a high level of co-morbidity). The authors have developed a comprehensive treatment drawing on a wide range of achievements in Family Therapy, called Multi-Dimensional Family Therapy (MDFT). Their fully documented claims include: o MDFT has demonstrated better results than several other state-of-the-art treatments, including family group therapy, peer group treatment, individual cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), and comprehensive residential treatment. o In addition to successfully treating adolescents who are heavy drug users, MDFT has worked effectively as a community-based prevention model and has successfully treated younger adolescents initiating drug use. o Substance use is significantly reduced in MDFT to a greater extent than all comparison treatments investigated (between 41% and 66% reduction from intake to discharge). o Treatment gains are enhanced in MDFT after treatment discharge; MDFT clients continue to decrease substance use after discharge up to 12-month follow-up, while teens in individual CBT and residential treatment increase drug use following treatment. o Psychiatric symptoms show greater reductions during treatment in MDFT (range of 35% to 80% within treatment reduction) than comparison treatments – MDFT clients also continue to improve following discharge while teens in CBT show relapse of emotional and behavioural problems after treatment.
  • 22. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 14 of 25 m.f… o School functioning improves more dramatically in MDFT than comparison treatments -- MDFT clients return to school and receive passing grades at higher rates (43% in MDFT vs. 17% in family group therapy and 7% in peer group therapy). o Family functioning improves to a greater extent in MDFT than family group therapy or peer group therapy using observational measures and these improvements are maintained up to 12-month follow-up. Treatment Engagement and Retention o MDFT clients stay in treatment longer than clients in outpatient and residential comparison treatments. 95% of clients in intensive outpatient MDFT stayed in treatment for 90 days as compared to 59% in residential. Cost Savings of Multidimensional Family Therapy o Average weekly costs of treatment are significantly less for MDFT ($164) than community- based outpatient treatment ($365) (French et al. 2003). o An intensive version of MDFT designed as an alternative to residential delivers better outcomes at 1/3 the cost (average weekly costs of $384 vs. $1,138) Sample references for this research programme are grouped here: French, M. T., Roebuck, M. C., Dennis, M., Godley, S., Liddle, H. A., & Tims, F. (2003). Outpatient marijuana treatment for adolescents: Economic evaluation of a multisite field experiment. Evaluation Review, 27, 421-459. Jackson-Gilfort, A., Liddle, H. A., Tejeda, M.J., & Dakof, G. A. (2001). Facilitating engagement of African-American male adolescents in family therapy: A cultural theme process study. Journal of Black Psychology, 27(3), 321-340. Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Parker, K., Diamond, G. S., Barrett, K., & Tejada, M. (2001). Multidimensional Family Therapy for adolescent substance abuse: Results of a randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 27, 651–687. Liddle, H. A., Rowe, C. L., Dakof, G. A., Ungaro, R. A., & Henderson, C. (2004). Early intervention for adolescent substance abuse: Pretreatment to posttreatment outcomes of a randomized controlled trial comparing multidimensional family therapy and peer group treatment. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. Schmidt, S. E., Liddle, H. A., & Dakof, G. A. (1996). Changes in parenting practices and adolescent drug abuse during multidimensional family therapy. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 12-27.
  • 23. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 15 of 25 m.f… Adult Studies Kelley & Fals-Stewart (2002) found couples therapy more effective than individual-based therapy for men entering treatment for alcohol or drug abuse. The effect was not only stronger for the client but had greater positive effect on discord within adult couple relationships and the psychosocial adjustment of the couples’ children. Byrne Carr &Clark (2004) reviewed panic disorder with agoraphobia. Couples work was effective, especially if the relationship was good. The London depression trial (Leff et al, 2000) found that manualised Family Therapy had higher compliance than CBT or medication, and was more effective and of comparable cost to medication. Those receiving Family Therapy had better compliance with medication as well as a reduced probability of relapse. Weissman (2002), in reviewing evidence-based psychological treatments, concludes that: ‘Overall, when compared to treatment as usual, behavioural, supportive, and systems based family intervention strategies were efficacious in reducing relapse rates in patients with schizophrenia (e.g., Falloon, Boyd, & McGill, 1984; Leff et al., 1985; Schooler et al., 1997).’ Burbach and Stanbridge (1998) report on a highly regarded family intervention in psychosis service, integrating systemic and family management approaches that had high levels of acceptance (Stanbridge et al, 2003). Hazel, McDonell, & Short (2004) conclude that multiple family group treatment reduced distress for caregivers of people with schizophrenia, but did not increase caregivers’ resources compared with usual care.
  • 24. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 16 of 25 m.f… A study of adult opiate users found more favourable outcomes for those receiving Family Therapy, compared with two individually based interventions, particularly for those living with a partner (Yandoli et al., 2002). Doyle et al (2003) compared residential with community-based Family Therapy programmes. Both had very positive results. The residential group were more likely to be total abstainers with bouts of heavy drinking. Those treated in the community had many more (43%) who were moderate drinkers but with far fewer bouts of heavy drinking. Family therapy combined with other treatments Epstein et al (1988) combined family interventions with drug treatments and showed a more positive effect in terms of family functioning and symptom resolution than drug therapy alone. Pilling et al. (2002) states that Family Therapy, in particular single family therapy, had clear preventative effects on the outcomes of psychotic relapse and readmission, in addition to benefits in medication compliance. In this study CBT was associated with lower drop-out rates. Family Therapy can also be a source of necessary collaboration between services. Reder, McClure, & Jolley (2000) cite the example of a single mother with depression who has a 7-year- old child with profound sleep disturbance. How likely would it be that the management of both would be fully integrated without a family-based treatment?
  • 25. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 17 of 25 m.f… Conclusions from the evidence There is strong empirical support for using some form of Family Therapy with a wide range of conditions. Researchers differ in their choice of conditions to review and there has been no co-ordination in the research effort. Some conditions have received significant research funding, and there are carefully conducted and well-resourced research studies available. In many other areas, research is patchy or has never been commissioned. There is, therefore, an arbitrariness about the research base that makes it necessary to extrapolate from those areas that have been well- researched. Family Therapy is of proven effectiveness wherever it has been properly researched, and the conditions of proven effectiveness cover a wide range of difficulties (e.g. distress in couple relationships, drug dependence and psychosis). It is a treatment with a well-developed theoretical base, forged through decades of practice in highly varied settings. Future research directions The available research into efficacy is generally positive, but the research base is limited. There is therefore a strong justification for including Family Therapy in future comparison outcome trials, and for conducting more coherent and rigorous outcome research on Family Therapy. Efficacy trials are, however, only the start of the story because efficacy does not necessarily amount to the kind of therapeutic change implied by the term ‘effectiveness’, and the fact that a treatment produces cost-effective improvements under specialist conditions does not guarantee effectiveness in everyday practice (Chorpita, 2003). Although effectiveness usually achieves lower scores than measures of efficacy, controlled trials may underestimate the value of a
  • 26. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 18 of 25 m.f… therapy. As Fonagy et al (2004) state “Outcome measures should cover more domains than that of symptomatology: a treatment may be more effective in the long run if it has a beneficial impact across other domains of functioning, even if the effect on symptoms is no greater”. Therapy conducted in controlled conditions by specialists who are often the originators of the particular approach needs to be followed by trials in more realistic field conditions. Are the methods still effective when transported to less specialist locations with no input from the originators? There is a woeful shortage of data on the progression from efficacy through effectiveness to transportability and one can only speculate about the factors that might be relevant in maintaining the results shown by research. Strategies for making decisions from evidence The evidence base of any area of psychotherapy is a complex mixture of research that appropriately draws on all five levels of evidence identified by the DoH (1999): o Type I evidence (at least one good systematic review and randomised controlled trial (RCT) for a range of problems), o Type II evidence (at least one good RCT), o Type III evidence (at least one non-randomised intervention study), o Type IV evidence (at least one well-designed observational study), o Type V evidence (expert opinion, particularly of service carers and users). Because much of the research by Family Therapists needs to use rigorous qualitative methods, these studies must be evaluated according to the relevant criteria. Lincoln & Guba (1985) formulate these as credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. Qualitative criteria are further discussed by Robson (2002).
  • 27. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 19 of 25 m.f… The range of what needs to be considered is indicated by the document “Psychological Therapies Working in Partnership” (NHS Executive, 2000) which advocates that choice of treatment be informed by psychological formulation, clinical judgement, research indications, user preferences and cost efficiency rather than diagnosis or presenting symptoms alone. Sackett’s (1996) conclusions about evidence-based medicine include: ‘The practice of EBM means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.’ We would propose four types of sources that should converge in deciding when Family Therapy is the treatment of choice: Source 1: Evidence o Evidence that it works best for this condition. o Evidence it works for similar conditions, and no contrary evidence for this condition. o Evidence that family treatment is synergistic with other treatments that will be used. Source 2: Nature of the condition The condition is understood in terms such that Family Therapy is most appropriate. E.g. dependence on the family for sustaining treatment; known to be exacerbated by certain forms of family functioning that are likely to be present; is largely defined in terms of family relationships; arises from family life stage. Further reasons are provided in ‘Treatment Choice in Psychological Therapies and Counselling’ (DoH, 2001) and relate to the decision whether to refer out of primary care (to either a community mental health team [CMHT] or psychotherapy service). Criteria include: history of severe trauma, where previous attempts to treat at primary care level have been unsuccessful, or where the
  • 28. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 20 of 25 m.f… appropriate service is not available in primary care. This is likely to include patients with complex social/family problems, severe depression, anxiety or social dysfunction, and co-morbidity. The report also states that: “Patient preference or demand for a secondary service should also be taken into account”, leading to: Source 3:Acceptability Examples can be taken from the DoH website: Patient choice. Giving patients more choice about how, when and where they receive treatment is a cornerstone of the Government’s health strategy. This strategy paper draws out and develops the main themes that emerged from the “Choice, Responsiveness and Equity” consultation, which closed on 11 November 2003. It broadly sets out how the Government aims to make NHS services more responsive to patients, by offering more choice across the spectrum of healthcare. Its main aim is to improve patient and user experience and build new partnerships between those who use health and social care and those who work in them. The section of this report reviewing evidence pointed to findings of greater acceptability to clients of family-based therapy. Cottrell and Boston (2002) conclude that there is evidence that systemic therapies may reduce drop-put and increase consumer satisfaction with therapies. Source 4: Family Therapy can be delivered In any particular situation Family Therapy can only be considered if it can realistically be delivered. As already discussed, the availability of trained family therapists is crucial but once this resource is available it becomes practical, and ethical, to also have family interventions provided
  • 29. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 21 of 25 m.f… by other professionals whose practice can be planned, supervised and kept up-to-date by the registered family therapist(s). The model here follows well-established approaches of cascading expertise. It is not the only route to providing clients with this essential resource, but for many services it is likely to be the most practical. Conclusion: why Family Therapy is an essential provision. While this review attempts a balanced assessment of evidence it has been written by researchers and practitioners from a position that systemic family therapy is an important part of the provision for people who are coping with mental health and other problems. However, that conviction itself has developed from the range of accepted sources described in the previous sections. There is strong evidence of both efficacy and effectiveness in a range of specific conditions. Family Therapy is used for an extremely wide range of problems, many without a clear (DSM- type) diagnostic definition, so there is no prospect that there will be evidence for every application of the approach to treatment. However, if we take the conditions that have been researched as representative, then we can deduce the range of problems for which it would be appropriate to expect Family Therapy to be effective. In summary, reasons to ensure and expand provision of Family Therapy include: o It has proven effectiveness for those conditions for which it has been properly researched. o There is very substantial supportive evidence for its effectiveness from diverse research and clinical experience. o Trained family therapists draw on a good range of approaches with clear theoretical rationales. Current models of family therapy pay explicit attention to issues of culture, ethnicity, gender, discrimination and wider physical and societal contexts.
  • 30. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 22 of 25 m.f… o Responsive and effective therapy for families in the UK needs to develop through practice in the UK, rather than relying on methods developed by practitioners in the USA and elsewhere. o Properly trained family therapists have transferable skills in relation to team working, consultation, organisation etc. o Family therapists can support other professionals in their work with families. References. Allison, S., Stacey, K., Dadds, V., Roeger, L., Wood, A., & Martin, G. (2003) What the family brings: gathering evidence for strengths-based work. Journal of Family Therapy. 25, 263- 284. Asen, E. (2002) Outcome research in family therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 8, 230- 238 Baucom, D. H., Shoham. V., Muescr, K. T., Daiuto, A. D., & Stickle, T. R. (1998). Empirically supported couple and family interventions for marital distress and adult mental health problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 53-58. Byrne, M., Carr, M., Clark, M (2004) The efficacy of couples-based interventions for panic disorder with agoraphobia. Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 105-125 Burbach, R. F. and Stanbridge, R. I., (1998) "A family therapy intervention in psychosis service integrating the systemic and family management approaches", Journal of Family Therapy, 20, 311-325. Carr (2000a) Evidence-Based Practice in Family Therapy and Systemic Consultation I: Child focused problems. Journal of Family Therapy. 22. 29-60. Carr (2000b) Evidence-Based Practice in Family Therapy and Systemic Consultation II: Adult focused problems. Journal of Family Therapy. 22. 273-295. Chorpita, B. F. (2003). The frontier of evidence-based practice In A. E. Kazdin & J. R. Weisz (Eds.), Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents (pp. 42–59). New York: Guilford Press. Colaban, M. and Robinson, P. H. (2002) “Multi-family groups in the treatment of young adults with eating disorders”, Journal of Family Therapy, 24, 17-30. Cottrell, D. and Boston, P. (2002) Practitioner Review: The Effectiveness of Systemic Family Therapy for Children and Adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 43:5, 573-586.
  • 31. AFT, 2005 Evidence base 23 of 25 m.f… Dare, C., Eisler, I., Colaban, M., Crowther, C., Senior, R. and Asen, A. (1995) “The listening heart and the chi square: clinical and empirical perceptions in the family therapy of anorexia nervosa”, Journal of Family Therapy, 17, 31-57. Department of Health (2001) Treatment choice in psychological therapies and counselling: Evidence based clinical practice guideline. http://www.doh.gov.uk/mentalhealth/treatmentguideline/treatment.pdf Doyle, M, Carr, A, Rowen, S, Galvin, P, Lyons, S & Cooney, G. (2003) Family oriented treatment for people with alcohol problems in Ireland: a comparison of the effectiveness of residential and community based programmes. Journal of Family Therapy 25, 15-40. Eisler, I. (2005) Editorial: A rose by any other name. Journal of Family Therapy. 27: 1–2 Eisler, I., leGrange, D., & Asen, E., (2002) Family Interventions. In J. Treasure, U. Schmidt and E. van Furth (Eds) Handbook of Eating Disorders. Wiley, Chichester. Fonagy P (2002) What works for whom? : a critical review of treatments for children and adolescents. London, Guilford. Fonagy, P. Target, M. Cottrell, D. Phillips J. and Kurtz. Z (2004) Evidence Based Child Mental Health: A Comprehensive Review of Treatment Interventions. New York: Guilford Hazel N. A, McDonell M. G, Short R. A, (2004) Impact of multiple-family groups for outpatients with schizophrenia on caregivers’ distress and resources. Psychiatr Serv 55:35–41 Hazelrigg, M. D., Cooper, H. M., & Borduin, C. M. (1987). Evaluating the effectiveness of family therapies: An integrative review and analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 428-442. Henggeler, S. W., & Sheidow, A. J. (2002). Conduct disorder and delinquency. In D. H. Sprenkle (Ed.), Effectiveness research in marriage and family therapy (pp. 27-51). Washington, DC: AAMFT. Kelley M. L., & Fals-Stewart W. (2002) Couples- versus individual-based therapy for alcohol and drug abuse: effects on children’s psychosocial functioning. J Consult Clin Psychol 70:417–427 Krautter T., & Lock, J. (2004) Is manualized family-based treatment for adolescent anorexia nervosa acceptable to patients? Patient satisfaction at the end of treatment. Journal of Family Therapy.26. 66-82. Leff, J, Berkowitz, R Shavit, N. et al. (1989) "A trial of family therapy versus a relative's group for schizophrenics." British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 58-66 Leff, J., Vearnals, S., Brewin, C. R., Wolff, G., Alexander, B., Asen, E., Dayson, D., Jones, E., Chisholm, D. and Everitt, B. (2000). "The London Depression Intervention Trial: Randomised controlled trial of antidepressants v. couple therapy in the treatment and maintenance of people with depression living with a partner: clinical outcome and costs". British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 95-100 Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. New York: Sage.
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