The document provides an overview of early forms of government including democracy in ancient Greece and the Roman Republic. It discusses how Athens developed one of the first democratic systems, allowing native-born men to vote, before power struggles led to its decline. The Roman Republic transitioned from monarchy to an oligarchy and later a representative republic before internal conflicts and military influence eroded the balance of power and led to dictatorship and empire. The document also briefly outlines the development of constitutional monarchy in England.

4. Academic Unit 1
Early Attempts at Democracy and
Republic

5. I. Introduction
A. What does the government do?
1. Provides national security
2. Public services (roads, bridges)
3. Protects life, liberty, property
4. Makes economic decisions (taxes, trade,
money)
5. Provides all of these for a state – a specific
territory and population that has sovereignty.

6. B. Ways to Organize
1. Centralized or unitary – power comes
from one place – Paris in France.
2. Federal – power is shared between
central and local government Germany,
Mexico, and USA.
3. Confederation – loose alliance of
independent states – USA under the
Articles of Confederation.

7. C. Ways to Rule
1. Autocracy
a. Monarchy – King or Queen, usually an inherited
position. Usually is supported or detested by other
nobles.
b. Dictator – military support is required for one man
rule, often through a one party system. Erosion of
rights to retain power angers people.
c. Emperor – similar to monarch, but over a diverse
population.

8. 2. Oligarchy
a. Aristocracy – nobility rules as a group – Athens
before democracy
b. Communist Party Rule – Modern day Communist
Party in China rules over 1 billion people.
c. Military Control – Myanmar is ruled by army, little
relationship between rest of world.

9. 3. Democracy
a. Direct – everyone votes on laws
i. Rarely exists, complicated to run.
ii. Towns run by hall meetings is an example.
iii. Ancient Athens was close, but foreign born and women
could not vote.
b. Representative – Republic – This is the government
of most nation-states today including the USA.

10. D. Branches of government
1. Legislative – makes the law (Congress)
2. Executive – carries out the law
(President)
3. Judicial – interprets the law (Supreme
Court)

11. II. Ancient Greece

12. A. What influenced Greece?
1. Dominated by mountains, valleys & small
plains
2. Small communities due to little arable
soil
3. Difficult to communicate
4. Had to sail to colonize, trade.

13. B. With so many independent
states within Greece, what did they
have in common?
1. A common language
2. A common heritage of myths
3. The worship of the gods.

14. C. Athenian democracy…
• Lasted about 140 to 200 years
• Did not include all Athenians, just native
born men.
• Was not seen again until Colonial
America.
• Democracy comes from Demos meaning
"people" and kratos meaning "rule."

15. D. How did democracy develop?
1. Draco the Lawgiver and wealthy nobility used harsh punishments
to control people.
a. Capital punishment for minor crimes
b. Law was codified
2. After Dracon’s death, Salon…
a. Abolished enslavement of Athenian citizens, redeemed all the
Athenian slaves he could.
b. Established two ruling bodies made up of representatives of the
people: Council composed of four hundred members made the law
and oversaw magistrates which enforced it. Appeals court for people
to contest rulings they thought were unfair
c. He divided the citizens into four classes based on wealth, not kinship
so your status was based on your success not on those you were
related to.
d. Got rid of the severe penalties established by Dracon.
e. He changed the currency to facilitate trade with the East.
f. Nothing to be exported except olive oil and eventually wine so grain
would stay in Athens to feed people.

16. E. Later, Clisthenes…
1. Abolished divisions based on wealth.
2. He created 10 artificial tribes.
3. Expanded membership of the Assembly. 6000
needed for quorum.
4. Allowed each tribe to choose 50 members to
serve in the Council of 500.
5. Directed Council to create agenda for the
assembly so it was more orderly.
6. Designed chief executives – 10 generals
chosen by lot.
7. Believed that any Athenian man could
participate – an ideal of democracy.

17. F. Why Didn’t Democracy Work?
• The people were easily swayed.
• People were greedy and wanted more territory which led to war.
• The first wars against Persia were defensive and justifiable
• Athens led an alliance to defend Greece against King Darius.
• Afterwards, the Delian League, led by Athens, continued to exist for security, but
Athens used it to expand their sphere of influence in what was known as the
Athenian Empire.
• Those that refused to belong or contribute money and troops were destroyed.
Cities were burnt, men were killed and women/children were enslaved.
• Afraid of Athenian dominance, the Spartans and other city-states started the
Peloponnesian League.
• Eventually the two leagues fought a series of wars which involved Persian help to
Sparta, infighting (especially in the Delian League), and declining support within
Athens.
• Pericles of Athens maintained leadership and popular support of the people which
briefly garnered a 30 year peace. Once the wars started again, Athen's position
continued to falter and Pericles died of the plague.
• Eventually, the Spartan army was able to besiege Athens and starve them into
submission
• Sparta installed an oligarchy of nobles known as the “Thirty Tyrants.” They were
cruel and stripped the people of rights until they were toppled. Athens was not
stable or free for centuries.

19. G. Philosophy
• Socrates was executed for challenging the ideals of Athens.
• Plato believed the people could not rule, they must be assigned to roles.
• Wrote The Republic, reflecting on life of mentor.
• Plato was angry over mentor’s death.
• “Philosophers must become kings…or those now called kings must…genuinely and
adequately philosophize.”
• People must be broken up into classes…
a. Leadership (preferably philosophers)
b. Civilians
c. Military
7. Started “The Academy” to train future leaders.
8. One student was Aristotle who believed the law and government needed to reflect
logic in order to thwart man’s evil instincts.
9. Aristotle educated Alexander the Great who conquered the known world and died by
32.
10. Despite his Macedonian origins, Alexander absorbed Greek ideas and spread them
through the Mediterranean where they influenced Rome.

20. III. Rome: REPUBLIC TO
THE EMPIRE

22. A. Formation of the Republic
1. Cruel monarchy was removed and replaced by
oligarchy.
2. Conquered Etruscans to the north and had too
much land and people for a democracy.
3. Used representative government to make
laws.
4. Republic at first used only the nobles
(patricians) for offices.
5. Evetually after much struggle, the common
people (pleibains) were allowed to hold offices
as well.

23. B. Legislative
1. Senate: merely a advisory body, the Senate made decrees which did not
have to be followed, but were.
a. Comes from sense (old men).
b. 300 patricians (wealthy) who serve for life, eventually plebs were
allowed to join.
c. Power resided there.
2. Assemblies –
a. Comitia or committees were made of all of the people.
b. Concilia or councils represented specific groups of people
c. Comitia Centuriata – made up of soldiers, elected magistrates, declared
war, highest court of appeals.
d. Comitia Tributa – represented tribes of Rome, voted on laws, elected
lower officials.
e. Concilium Plebis – Passed laws for plebs, elected middle officials,
evetually combined with tributa.

24. C. Executive Branch
a. Quaester – financial officers
• Aedile - organize the games, supervise public works.
• Praetors -senior magistrates, chief law officer.
• Consul - 2 for 1 year - preside over the Senate and are
commanders - in – chief. They could veto each other, call the
assemblies to order, and were the head of government. Could
run again in ten years.
• Dictator –In emergency times a man of merit could be appointed
with absolute powers until the crisis abated.
• Pontifex Maximus – Chief priest that presided over official
ceremonies, chose calendar, members of the priesthood.
• Censors - (of which there were two) was in his main duty the
registrar of Rome. But he also oversaw the finances, including
taxation, inspected the quality of public works and - more
controversially - oversaw public morality

25. D. Campaigning according to
Marcus Tullius Cicero…
1. have plenty of followers
2. call everyone by name
3. make promises, never say no.
4. campaign in all parts of Rome

26. E. Candidate
• "gleaming white," type of toga worn - it
was like our business suit.
• Campaigning was personal: No posters -
wrote on the walls, Paid for games or
food.

27. F. Development of the Republic
1. Patricians in the beginning controlled all
offices and law.
2. Plebs were not informed and faced harsh
punishment.
3. A series of revolts established a public,
codified law and rights for plebs.
4. After conquering Italy, other town were
given Roman citizenship.
5. Rome set its sights on Sicily, which was
partially controlled by Carthage, an empire
based out of Western North Africa.

28. G. Wars and Social Unrest
1. Carthage and Rome engaged in two wars
from 264 to 146 BCE.
2. Hannibal invaded Europe, bringing a huge
army with elephants, but was unable to
persuade other Italians to revolt.
3. General Scipio Africanus was able to
outlast and destroy Carthage.
4. Patricians received slave labor and land.
5. This caused the plebs to face
unemployment and poverty.

29. H. Outcry and Welfare
1. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were
elected tribunes in 2nd century BCE and
wanted to redistribute patrician land.
2. They and 3,000 supporters were
murdered.
3. Eventually, all Romans were exempt from
taxes, were provided with food and
entertainment to stop them from revolting.

30. I. Military Influence
1. Generals Marius and Sulla used the
military to control the Senate.
2. Marius rules first and allows landless men
to join, increasing his popularity.
3. Sulla took over when he died, and
increased the size of the Senate and limited
veto powers.

31. J. Slavery and Power
1. Spartacus, a gladiator, revolted and was
followed by 70,000 others.
2. Generals Crassus and Pompey eventually
defeated him after heavy losses. Many were
crucified.
3. Crassus had success to the east, Pompey
rid the sea of pirates and a new general
conquered Gaul (Caesar).
4. Together, they shared power in the
Triumvirate .

32. H. Balance Turns to Dictatorship
1. Crassus is killed in the East when liquid hot gold is poured down his throat.
2. Caesar becomes very wealthy and shares wealth with the plebs.
3. Pompey becomes suspicious, especially when his wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter)
does in childbirth.
4. Nobility and Senate side with Pompey.
5. Cato, Scipio (a descendant of the general), and Cicero fear Caesar will make
himself king and order him to give up his legions.
6. Caesar believes they acted illegally and brings his army into Italy which is illegal.
7. Pompey and many nobles flee, eventually to Greece where they raise an army.
8. Expenses and desertion wear down Pompey and Senators switch sides.
9. Cicero and young Brutus switch, Cato and Scipio commit suicide.
10. He flees to Egypt, but Ptolemy XIII has him beheaded.
11. Caesar is outraged that barbarians have killed a former Consul of Rome and have
the leadership of Egypt killed.
12. He appoints his lover Cleopatra as Pharaoh and they have a son Cesarean.
13. Caesar returns to Rome where his given dictators powers.
14. He appoints many plebs to the Senate and expands the welfare roles.
15. He is eventually assassinated by a group of Senators led by Brutus and Cassius.

33. I. Dissolution of Republic
1. Mark Anthony, Caesar’s young general-apprentice inherits his
popularity.
2. Nephew Octavian inherits his fortune.
3. A truce is offered to Brutus and Cassius, but they must leave the
city.
4. Anthony and Octavian quarrel, but unite with noble general
Lepidus in the Second Triumvirate to attack Brutus and Cassius.
5. The murderers are annihilated along with their supporters in
Rome, including Cicero.
6. Eventually Lepidus is demoted because of corruption, and
Anthony and Octavian start fighting again.
7. Anthony flees to Egypt, begins an affair with Cleopatra, and holds
back grain from Rome.
8. He makes a will promising his children with Cleopatra parts of the
Republic and Cesarean Rome itself.
9. The people are outraged.

39. K. Roman Empire
1. Augustus (nephew of Cesar) defeats Mark
Anthony and Cleopatra.
2. Augustus rules from 27 BC to 14 AD and
successfully organizes “republic”
3. Takes on title of “head magistrate.”
4. Relatives (by blood and adoption) assume
thrown of “Caesar.”
5. Some are undeserving, many assassinations.
6. Persecution of Christians occurs.
7. Ruled till 96 AD.
8. Hand picked successors bring prosperity for a
century.

41. L. Decline of the Empire
1. Murder, corruption and military rule
happen intermittently.
2. Christianity becomes official religion.
3. The Empire is split into West and East
(Byzantine) 260 AD.
4. The West falls to German Barbarians
around 400 AD
5. The East falls to Muslim Turks around
1453 AD.

42. M. Dark Ages and Feudalism.
1. Fear and anarchy is replaced by local
warlords.
2. Eventually, they gather strength and
land.
3. The most powerful require allegiance
from the weak and becomes monarchs.
4. The poor work on land and supply crops
or taxes.

43. IV. English Constitutionalism

44. A. Monarchy's Early Limitations.
1. France develops into an absolute rule, based on “divine right of
kings.”
2. King John of England attempts the same, but a revolt leads to the
Magna Carta (1215) which protects the rights of lower nobles and
towns.
3. King Henry VIII tries to regain power by taking charge of the
Church of England when the Pope will not grant a divorce. He
does get approval from Parliament.
4. His Protestant son, Edward VI dies young.
5. His Catholic daughter Mary I tries to bring the nation back to
Rome.
6. When she dies, her Protestant sister, Elizabeth I has to unite the
nation.
7. In order to do so, she must win the favour of Parliament.
8. Gets them to pass legislation to provide a unified Church of
England.

45. B. Dissention and War
1. James (of the Stuart family)- believed in Divine right of kings
2. Hated to ask Parliament for the money to finance his war plans.
3. Left a bad relationship between monarchy and Parliament.
4. His son Charles assumed the thrown, had a Catholic wife.
5. Parliament was divided between House of Commons and Lords.
6. Continually fought with Parliament, dismissed them many times.
7. Needed money for land grabs in France and to quell rebellions in Scotland.
8. When Parliament is recalled, they ask him to sign the Petition of Rights.
a. No taxes without Parliament’s consent.
b. King could not life habeas corpus.
c. No housing or troops without consent of owners.
d. No martial law in peacetime.
9. Two groups evolve:
a. Puritan Roundheads (supporters of the House of Commons).
b. Royalist Cavaliers.
10. The two sides fought in the English Civil War.

46. 2.
C. Constitutionalism Results…
England erupts into Civil War (1642 -1651) when Charles I dismisses Parliament for not raising taxes.
3. Puritan Parliament revolts and demands concessions from King.
4. Puritan Roundheads win and Oliver Cromwell is new brutal leader (their side won thanks to his brilliant
military strategy).
5. Charles I is decapitated.
6. People decide Puritan rule is too rough.
7. Charles II is brought back to rule, but powers are limited.
a. Grant a general pardon to those who had killed his father.
b. Not question religion.
c. Pay a standing army (stabilizing force)
d. Let all land confiscated or sold during the Commonwealth be decided by Parliament.
8. His brother James II rules and many believe he is a closet Catholic.
9. Parliament invites Protestant cousin Mary and her husband to rule.
10. James II flees with virtually no violence in what is known as the “Glorious Revolution.”

47. C. Constitutionalism results
continued
10. William and Mary agree to the English Bill of Rights.
a. Parliament control of taxes.
b. The right to petition the king.
c. No standing army was to be used against the people.
d. Protestants had the right to bear arms.
e. Freedom of Speech and Debates.
f. Freedom to elect members of Parliament.
g. All future monarchs had to be Protestant.
3. Monarchy and House of Lords continually lost power
from this point.