163 ch 06_lecture_presentation

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
PowerPoint®
Lecture Slides
prepared by
Meg Flemming
Austin Community College
C H A P T E R
The Skeletal
System
6

Chapter 6 Learning Outcomes
• 6-1
• Describe the primary functions of the skeletal system.
• 6-2
• Classify bones according to shape, and compare the structures
and functions of compact and spongy bone.
• 6-3
• Compare the mechanisms of intramembranous ossification and
endochondral ossification.
• 6-4
• Describe the remodeling and homeostatic mechanisms of the
skeletal system.
• 6-5
• Summarize the effects of the aging process on the skeletal system.

• 6-6
• Name the components and functions of the axial and appendicular
skeletons.
• 6-7
• Identify the bones of the skull, discuss the differences in structure
and function of the various vertebrae, and describe the roles of the
thoracic cage.
• 6-8
• Identify the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the upper
and lower limbs, and describe their various functions.
• 6-9
• Contrast the major categories of joints, and link their structural
features to joint functions.

• 6-10
• Describe how the structural and functional properties of synovial
joints permit the dynamic movements of the skeleton.
• 6-11
• Explain the relationship between joint structure and mobility of
representative axial and appendicular articulations.
• 6-12
• Explain the functional relationships between the skeletal system
and other body systems.

Five Functions of the Skeletal System (6-1)
1. Support
• Provided for the entire body by the entire skeletal system
• Bones provide attachments for soft tissues and organs
2. Storage
• Provided by the bones for calcium salts for body fluids
• Lipids are stored in yellow marrow for energy reserves

3. Blood cell production
• Occurs in the red marrow and results in increases in red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
4. Protection
• Provided to soft tissues and organs by surrounding them
with the skeleton
• Examples:
• The skull enclosing the brain
• The ribs protecting the heart and lungs

5. Movement
• In part a function of the skeletal system because the bones
function as levers
• When the skeletal muscles pull on the bones, movement
occurs

Checkpoint (6-1)
1. Name the five primary functions of the skeletal
system.

Bone Tissue Characteristics (6-2)
• Bones or osseous tissue
• Are a supporting connective tissue; cells are called
osteocytes
• Matrix made of extracellular protein fibers and a ground
substance
• Calcium phosphate
• Ca3(PO4)2
• A salt deposited into the matrix
• Giving 2/3 of the weight of the 206 bones in the body

Four General Shapes of Bones (6-2)
1. Long bones
• Longer than they are wide
• For example, the humerus
2. Short bones
• About as wide as they are long
• For example, the carpal bones
3. Flat bones
• Are broad
• Like the scapula
4. Irregular bones
• Complex in shape
• Like a vertebra

Figure 6-1 Shapes of Bones.
Long Bones
Short Bones
Humerus
Carpal
bones
Flat Bones
Parietal bone
Irregular Bones
Vertebra

Structure of a Long Bone (6-2)
• The diaphysis, or central shaft
• Has a marrow cavity in the center filled with bone marrow
• The epiphyses are the wider portions at each end
• Covered with articular cartilage

Structure of a Long Bone (6-2)
• Compact bone
• Is densely packed; forms the diaphysis
• Spongy bone, also called cancellous bone
• Has projections of bone separated by space
• Periosteum
• Is the outer covering of bone
• Endosteum
• Lines the marrow cavity and spongy bone

Figure 6-2 The Structure of a Long Bone.
Articular cartilage
Spongy bone
Blood vessels
Epiphyseal line
Marrow cavity
Endosteum
Compact
bone
Periosteum
Proximal
epiphysis
Diaphysis
Distal
epiphysis

Histology of Bone (6-2)
• Periosteum has two layers
• A fibrous outer layer and a cellular inner layer
• Bone cells are called osteocytes
• Located in pockets called lacunae
• Found between sheets of matrix called lamellae
• Canaliculi are small channels
• That run through the matrix
• And connect the lacunae and blood vessels

Histology of Compact Bone (6-2)
• Has a repeating functional unit called the osteon,
or Haversian system
• Osteon is made of concentric circles of lamella
• Surrounding a central canal that has blood vessels in it
• Perforating canals allow for blood vessels in the
central canals:
• To be linked to other vessels

Characteristics of Compact Bone (6-2)
• Covers all bone surfaces except for the articular
surfaces
• Can tolerate a lot of stress applied to either end of
a long bone
• Cannot tolerate moderate stress applied to the side of the
shaft

Histology of Spongy Bone (6-2)
• Has no osteons
• The lamellae form rods called trabeculae
• Found in the epiphyses
• Where the stress is handled by the joints
• Much lighter than compact bone
• Reducing the work of muscles to move bones

Figure 6-3 The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.
Cellular layer
of periosteum
Fibrous layer
of periosteum
Spongy bone
Marrow cavity
Compact bone
Small vein
Capillary
Lamellae
Lamellae Canaliculi
Osteons
Endosteum
Central
canal
Osteon
Lacunae
Osteon LM x 343
In this thin section through compact
bone, the intact matrix making up the
lamellae appears white, and the central
canal, luacunae, and canaliculi appear
black due to the presence of bone dust.
Trabeculae
of spongy bone
Perforating
canal
Central
canal
Vein
Artery
This diagrammatic view depicts the
parallel osteons of compact bone and
the trabecular network of spongy bone.

Figure 6-3a The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.
Cellular layer
of periosteum
Fibrous layer
of periosteum
Spongy bone
Marrow cavity
Compact bone
Small vein
Capillary
Lamellae
Osteons
Endosteum
Trabeculae
of spongy bone
Perforating
canal
Central
canal
Vein
Artery
This diagrammatic view depicts the parallel
osteons of compact bone and the trabecular
network of spongy bone.

Figure 6-3b The Microscopic Structure of a Typical Bone.
Lamellae Canaliculi
Central
canal
Osteon
Lacunae
Osteon LM x 343
In this thin section through compact
bone, the intact matrix making up the
lamellae appears white, and the central
canal, luacunae, and canaliculi appear
black due to the presence of bone dust.

Types of Bone Cells (6-2)
• Osteocytes
• Mature cells that maintain bone structure by recycling
calcium salts
• Osteoclasts
• Large cells that secrete acid and enzymes that break down
the matrix
• Releasing minerals through osteolysis
• Osteoblasts
• Produce new bone through a process called ossification

Checkpoint (6-2)
2. Identify the four general shapes of bones.
3. How would the strength of a bone be affected if the ratio
of collagen to calcium increased?
4. A sample of a long bone shows concentric layers
surrounding a central canal. Is it from the shaft or the end
of the bone?
5. Mature bone cells are known as ________, bone-building
cells are called ________, and ________ are bone-
resorbing cells.
6. If the activity of osteoclasts exceeds that of osteoblasts in
a bone, how will the mass of the bone be affected?

Bone Formation (6-3)
• Embryonic development of bone
• Begins at week 6 as a cartilaginous formation
• Replaced with bone, a process called ossification
• Two types
1. Intramembranous ossification
2. Endochondral ossification
• Calcification occurs during ossification
• Can also occur in other tissues besides bone

Intramembranous Ossification (6-3)
• Occurs during fetal development
• Developing sheets of connective tissue
• Osteoblasts differentiate and develop calcified
matrix
• Ossification begins around an ossification center
• New bone branches outward, develops blood
supply
• Spongy bone structures remodel into compact flat bones
• Such as the skull bones

Figure 6-4 Bone Formation in a 16-Week-Old Fetus.
Endochondral bones
Intramembranous
bones

Five Steps of Endochondral Ossification (6-3)
• Embryonic cartilaginous skeletal structures are
replaced by true bone in a series of five steps
1. Chondrocytes enlarge and matrix begins to calcify
• Closing off the chondrocytes from nutrients
• Causing them to die
2. Bone formation starts at the shaft surface
• Blood vessels invade the perichondrium
• New osteoblasts produce bone matrix

3. Blood vessels invade inner region of cartilage
• New osteoblasts form spongy bone at primary ossification
center
• Bone develops toward each end
• Filling shaft with spongy bone
4. Osteoclasts begin to break down spongy bone in
center
• To form marrow cavity
• Epiphyseal cartilages, or plates, on the ends of the bone
continue to enlarge

5. Centers of the epiphyses begin to calcify
• Secondary ossification centers form
• Epiphyses fill with spongy bone
• Bone grows in length from the epiphyseal cartilages
• Joint surfaces are covered with articular cartilage

Endochondral Ossification (6-3)
• At puberty, bone growth accelerates
• Due to sex hormone production
• Osteoblasts produce bone faster than the
epiphyseal cartilage can expand
• Epiphyseal artilages eventually disappear or "close"
• Adult bones show evidence of the epiphyseal line
• Where the cartilage once was

Figure 6-5 Endochondral Ossification.
Enlarging
chondrocytes
within
calcifying
matrix
Hyaline cartilage
model
Epiphysis
Diaphysis
Bone
formation
Blood
vessel
Marrow
cavity
Primary
ossification
center
Superficial
bone
Spongy
bone
Marrow
cavity
Epiphyseal
cartilage
Secondary
center of
ossification
Epiphyseal
cartilage
Epiphysis
Articular cartilage

Appositional Growth (6-3)
• Enlargement in the diameter of bones occurs as it
is growing in length
• Periosteum cells develop into osteoblasts
• Produce more matrix on the outer surface of the bone
• Osteoclasts erode the inner surface
• Enlarging the marrow cavity

Figure 6-6 Appositional Bone Growth.
Bone resorbed
by osteoclasts
Bone deposited
by osteoblastsInfant Child Young adult Adult

Closing of Epiphyseal Plates (6-3)
• Vary from bone to bone
• Digits close early
• Arm, leg, and pelvis bones close later
• Vary from person to person
• And between males and females
• Mostly due to differences in sex hormones

Requirements for Bone Growth (6-3)
• Mineral supply
• Especially calcium salts
• Vitamin D3
• Involved in calcium metabolism
• Rickets is due to vitamin D3 deficiency
• Vitamin A and vitamin C
• Provide support for osteoblasts
• Growth hormone, sex hormones, thyroid hormone,
and the calcium-balancing hormones

Checkpoint (6-3)
7. During intramembranous ossification, which type
of tissue is replaced by bone?
8. How could x-rays of the femur be used to
determine whether a person had reached full
height?
9. A child who enters puberty several years later
than the average is generally taller than average
as an adult. Why?
10.Why are pregnant women given calcium
supplements and encouraged to drink milk even
though their skeletons are fully formed?

Bone Remodeling (6-4)
• In adults:
• Osteocytes in lacunae continuously remove and replace
surrounding calcium salts
• Osteoblasts and osteoclasts remain active
• Remodeling bone, especially spongy bone
• In young adults:
• Remodeling is so rapid that about one-fifth of the skeletal
mass is replaced each year

Bone Remodeling (6-4)
• Appropriate stress
• Causes thickening and strengthening of bone
• Little stress on bones causes them to be weak and thin
• Exercise
• Is key to maintaining normal bone structure and strength

The Calcium Reserve (6-4)
• Calcium balance in the body fluids
• Is essential for many physiological mechanisms
• Especially in nerves and muscles
• Calcium balance is regulated by:
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitriol to raise calcium
levels
• Calcitonin to lower calcium levels in body fluids

Types of Fractures (6-4)
• Named by external appearance
• Closed (simple) fractures
• Completely internal
• Open (compound) fractures
• Project through the skin

• Named by location
• Example: Pott's fracture
• Occurs at the ankle and affects bones of the leg
• Example: Colles fracture
• Break in the distal portion of the radius

• Named by the nature of the break
• Example: transverse fractures
• Break a shaft of bone across its long axis
• Example: spiral fractures
• Produced by twisting stresses along the length of a bone
• Example: comminuted fractures
• Shatter the area into many smaller fragments

Four Steps to Repair Fractures (6-4)
1. Fractures result in broken blood vessels that
cause a blood clot, called a fracture hematoma,
to form
• This closes off the blood supply
• Killing osteocytes
• Resulting in dead bone on either side of the fracture

Four Steps to Repair Fractures (6-4)
2. Cells of periosteum and endosteum collect at the
fracture
• And develop into an external callus (develops hyaline
cartilage) and internal callus, respectively
3. Osteoblasts replace cartilage with spongy bone
4. Spongy bone is replaced by compact bone
• Leaving a slightly thicker spot at the fracture site

Figure 6-7 Steps in the Repair of a Fracture.
Dead
bone
Bone
fragments
Spongy
bone of
internal
callus
Periosteum Internal
callus
External
callus
External
callus
Cartilage of
external callus

Checkpoint (6-4)
11. Describe bone remodeling.
12. Why would you expect the arm bones of a
weight lifter to be thicker and heavier than those
of a jogger?
13. What general effects do the hormones PTH,
calcitriol, and calcitonin have on blood calcium
levels?
14. What is the difference between a closed fracture
and an open fracture?

Osteopenia and Aging (6-5)
• Osteopenia
• Inadequate ossification that naturally occurs as part of the
aging process
• Starting between the ages of 30 and 40:
• Osteoblastic activity slows and osteoclastic activity
increases
• Osteoporosis
• Loss of bone mass that impairs normal function and can lead
to more fractures
• More common in women and accelerates after menopause
• Due to a decline in circulating estrogens

Checkpoint (6-5)
15. Define osteopenia.
16. Why is osteoporosis more common in older
women than in older men?

Surface Bone Markings (6-6)
• Are landmark features on the surfaces of bones
• Include projections
• Where tendons and ligaments attach
• Where bones articulate
• Include depressions, grooves, and openings
• Where blood vessels and nerves pass through the bone

Table 6-1 An Introduction to Bone Markings (1 of 2)

Table 6-1 An Introduction to Bone Markings (2 of 2)

Skeletal Divisions (6-6)
• Axial skeleton includes:
• The skull and associated bones
• The thoracic cage with the ribs and sternum
• The vertebral column
• Appendicular skeleton includes:
• The pectoral girdle and the upper limbs
• The pelvic girdle and the lower limbs

Figure 6-8 The Skeleton.
Skull
Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Ribs
Vertebrae
Radius
Ulna
SacrumHip bone
Carpal
bones
Coccyx
Metacarpal
bones
Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsal bones
Metatarsal bones
Phalanges
Anterior view Posterior view

Figure 6-9 The Axial and Appendicular Divisions of the Skeleton.
AXIAL SKELETON
Skull
Skull and
associated
bones
Thoracic
cage
Vertebral
column
Associated
bones
Vertebrae
Sacrum
80
Cranium
Face
Auditory
ossicles
Hyoid
Sternum
Ribs
Coccyx
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpal bones
Metacarpal bones
Phalanges
(proximal,
middle, distal)
Hip bone
(coxal bone)
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsal bones
Metatarsal bones
Phalanges
Lower
limbs
Pelvic
girdle
Upper
limbs
Pectoral
girdle29
25
8
14
6
1
1
24
24
26 1
1
126
2
2
4
2
2
2
16
10
60
28
2
2
2
2
2
2
14
10
28
60
Hyoid 1

Checkpoint (6-6)
17. Define bone markings (surface features).

The Axial Skeleton (6-7)
• Framework for support and protection of the
brain, spinal cord, and organs in the ventral body
cavity
• Provides surface area for attachment of muscles
that:
1. Move the head, neck, and trunk
2. Perform respiration
3. Stabilize elements of the appendicular skeleton

The Skull (6-7)
• Houses brain and sense organs for sight, smell,
taste, and balance
• Total of 22 bones
• 8 form the cranium
• Forming cranial cavity, which houses brain
• 14 are facial bones
• Also includes associated bones, 6 auditory ossicles, and
one hyoid bone

The Frontal Bone (6-7)
• Forms the forehead and the roof of the orbits, or
eye sockets
• Supra-orbital foramen
• Forms a passageway above each orbit for blood vessels and
nerves
• Frontal sinuses
• Are air-filled cavities above the orbit
• Lined with mucus membrane
• Connect with the nasal cavity

The Parietal Bones (6-7)
• Are posterior to frontal bones and form the roof of
the cranium
• Coronal suture
• Where the parietal and frontal bones interlock
• Sagittal suture
• Where the parietal bones interlock at the midline of the
cranium

The Occipital Bone (6-7)
• Forms the posterior, inferior part of the cranium
• Lambdoid suture
• Where the occipital and parietal bones interlock
• Foramen magnum
• Surrounds the connection between the brain and the spinal
cord
• Occipital condyles
• The articular surfaces that sit on the first vertebra

The Temporal Bones (6-7)
• On either side of the cranium and zygomatic
arches, housing the ossicles in middle ear
• Squamous sutures
• Where the temporal and parietal bones interlock
• Key bone markings
• External auditory meatus
• Mandibular fossa
• Mastoid process
• Styloid process

The Sphenoid Bone (6-7)
• Forms part of the floor of the cranium
• The bridge between the cranial bones and the facial bones
• Contains a pair of sinuses, the sphenoidal
sinuses
• "Wings" of the bone extend laterally from a central
depression, the sella turcica
• Which houses and protects the pituitary gland

The Ethmoid Bone (6-7)
• Anterior to the sphenoid, forms part of the cranial
floor
• Forms the medial surfaces of the orbits and is the roof and
sides of the nasal cavity
• Crista galli projects upward toward the brain and
the inferior cribriform plate
• Has holes in it allowing for olfactory nerves to pass into the
nasal cavity

The Ethmoid Bone (6-7)
• Contains ethmoidal sinuses
• Projections into the nasal cavity toward the nasal
septum
• Called the superior and middle nasal conchae
• Perpendicular plate extends down from the crista
galli between the conchae
• To form part of the nasal septum

Figure 6-10 The Adult Skull, Part I.
Coronal
suture
PARIETAL
BONE
FRONTAL
BONE
SPHENOID
Supra-orbital
foramen
NASAL BONE
LACRIMAL
BONE
ETHMOID
Infra-orbital
foramen
MAXILLA
ZYGOMATIC
BONE
Squamous
suture
Lambdoid
suture
External
acoustic
meatus
Mastoid
process
TEMPORAL
BONE
MANDIBLE
Zygomatic
arch
Styloid process
Zygomatic process
of temporal bone
Temporal process
of zygomatic bone
Coronoid process
OCCIPITAL
BONE

The Maxillae (6-7)
• Also called the maxillary bones
• Articulate with all other facial bones except for the
mandible
• Forms the floor and medial sides of the rim of the
orbits, the walls of the nasal cavity, and the
anterior roof of the mouth (bony palate)
• Maxillary sinuses
• Drain into nasal cavity
• Lighten the weight of the bones

The Palatine and Vomer Bones (6-7)
• Palatine bones form the posterior surface of the
bony palate, or roof of the mouth
• Superior surfaces form the floor of the nasal cavity
• Superior tips form part of orbital floor
• Vomer articulates with paired palatine bones and
forms part of the nasal septum

The Zygomatic Bones (6-7)
• Articulate with the frontal bone and the maxillae,
forming the lateral wall of the orbit
• Temporal process of the zygomatic
• Curves laterally and posteriorly to articulate with the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone
• Forming the zygomatic arch

The Nasal and Lacrimal Bones (6-7)
• Nasal bones form the bridge of the nose between
the orbits
• Articulating with the frontal and maxillary bones
• Lacrimal bones are found within the orbit on the
medial surfaces
• Articulating with the frontal, ethmoid, and maxillary bones

The Inferior Nasal Conchae and Nasal Complex
(6-7)
• Inferior nasal conchae project from lateral walls of
nasal cavity
• Changing airflow to improve sense of smell
• The nasal complex is made of all the bones that
form the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses
that drain into it
• Nasal septum divides the cavity into right and left

Figure 6-13 The Paranasal Sinuses.
Frontal sinus
Ethmoidal
sinuses
Sphenoidal sinus
Maxillary sinus

The Mandible (6-7)
• The lower jaw
• Vertical process on either side
• The ramus extends up toward the temporal bone
• Posterior process of the ramus, the condylar
process
• Articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone
• Anterior coronoid process is the attachment
point:
• For the temporalis muscle that closes the jaw

Figure 6-11a The Adult Skull, Part II.
PARIETAL BONE
SPHENOID
TEMPORAL BONE
ETHMOID
PALATINE BONE
LACRIMAL BONE
ZYGOMATIC BONE
NASAL BONE
MAXILLA
INFERIOR NASAL
CONCHA
MANDIBLE
Coronal suture
Supra-orbital foramen
Optic canal
Superior orbital fissure
Temporal process of
zygomatic bone
Mastoid process of
temporal bone
Infra-orbital foramen
Middle nasal concha
(part of ethmoid)
Perpendicular plate
of ethmoid
VOMER
Nasal septum
(bony portion)
Anterior view
FRONTAL BONE
Sagittal suture

Figure 6-11b The Adult Skull, Part II.
FRONTAL BONE
ZYGOMATIC BONE
VOMER
SPHENOID
Styloid process
Mandibular fossa
External
acoustic meatus
Lambdoid suture
OCCIPITAL BONE
External occipital
protuberance
MAXILLA
PALATINE BONE
Zygomatic arch
TEMPORAL BONE
Mastoid process
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Inferior view

Figure 6-12a Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.
Crista galli
Cribriform plate
Sella turcica
FRONTAL BONE
ETHMOID
SPHENOID
TEMPORAL BONE
PARIETAL BONE
OCCIPITAL BONE
Superior view of a horizontal section
through the skull, showing the floor
of the cranial cavity

Figure 6-12b Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.
FRONTAL BONE
SPHENOID
Sphenoidal
sinus (right)
Frontal sinus
Crista galli
NASAL BONE
ETHMOID
PALATINE
BONE
MAXILLA
MANDIBLE
PARIETAL BONE
Sella turcica
TEMPORAL BONE
Lambdoid suture
OCCIPITAL BONE
Styloid process

Figure 6-12c Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.
FRONTAL
BONE
Frontal
sinuses
ETHMOID
Sphenoidal
sinuses
SPHENOID
NASAL BONE
PALATINE BONE
(bony palate)
MAXILLA
(bony palate)
Superior
Middle
Nasal
conchae
of ethmoidINFERIOR
NASAL
CONCHA
A sagittal section through the skull, with the nasal
septum removed to show major features of the wall
of the right nasal cavity

The Hyoid Bone (6-7)
• Small and U-shaped
• The only bone in the body not directly articulated
with another bone
• Is suspended from the styloid processes of the
temporal bones
• Serves as attachment for muscles of the larynx,
the tongue, and the pharynx

Greater horn
Lesser horn
Body
Figure 6-14 The Hyoid Bone.

The Skulls of Infants and Children (6-7)
• Fetal development of skull bones occurs around
the developing brain
• At birth:
• The cranial bones are connected with connective tissue
called fontanelles
• Flexible soft spots that allow for easier delivery of the
head
• By age 4:
• The fontanelles disappear and skull growth is finished

Figure 6-15 The Skull of a Newborn.
Coronal
suture
FRONTAL
BONE
PARIETAL
BONE
Sphenoidal
fontanelle
Squamous suture
Lambdoid suture
OCCIPITAL BONE
NASAL BONE
MAXILLA
SPHENOID
MANDIBLE TEMPORAL
BONE
Mastoid
fontanelle
Lateral view
FRONTAL
BONE
PARIETAL
BONE
Coronal
suture
Frontal suture Anterior
fontanelle
Sagittal suture
PARIETAL
BONE
Lambdoid
suture
OCCIPITAL
BONE
Occipital
fontanelle
FRONTAL
BONE
Superior view

The Vertebral Column (6-7)
• Also called the spine
• Has 24 vertebrae
• A fused sacrum
• A fused coccyx
• Provides weight-bearing column of support and
protection of spinal cord

The Vertebral Column (6-7)
• Cervical region (neck) has 7 cervical vertebrae
• Thoracic region has 12 thoracic vertebrae
• Lumbar region has 5 lumbar vertebrae
• Sacral region has 5 fused vertebrae in the
sacrum
• Coccygeal region also made of 3–5 fused
vertebrae in the coccyx

Spinal Curvature (6-7)
• Primary curves
• Project posteriorly and include the thoracic and sacral
curves
• Are present at birth
• Secondary curves
• Project anteriorly and include the cervical and lumbar
curves
• Develop several months after birth

Spinal Curvatures (6-7)
• Abnormal curves
• Kyphosis (exaggerated thoracic curve)
• Lordosis (exaggerated lumbar curve)
• Scoliosis (abnormal lateral curve)

Figure 6-16 The Vertebral Column.
VERTEBRAL REGIONSSPINAL CURVES
Cervical
Cervical
ThoracicThoracic
Lumbar
Lumbar
Sacral
Sacral
Coccygeal
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5

General Vertebral Anatomy (6-7)
• Vertebral bodies
• Bear weight and are separated from each other by
intervertebral discs
• Vertebral arches
• Form posterior margin of vertebral foramina, which form the
vertebral canal
• Have walls called pedicles and roofs called laminae

General Vertebral Anatomy (6-7)
• Transverse processes project laterally or
dorsolaterally from the pedicles
• Spinous process projects posteriorly from the laminae
• The inferior and superior articular processes
arise at junction of pedicles and laminae on both
sides of the vertebrae
• Contact one another at the articular facets
• Forming the intervertebral foramina

The Cervical Vertebrae (6-7)
• C1–C7
• Body relatively small, and is oval and concave in
shape
• Vertebral foramina gradually decrease in diameter,
but are relatively large
• Spinous process is stumpy, with notched tip
• Transverse processes have transverse foramina
• That protect blood vessels to and from the brain

The Cervical Vertebrae (6-7)
• C1 is the atlas
• Holds up the head
• Articulates with the occipital condyles
• Allows for a specific "nodding yes" movement
• C2 is the axis
• Has a projection up toward the atlas, called the dens, or
odontoid process
• Allows for rotational "shaking the head no" movement

Figure 6-18 The Atlas and Axis.
Dens
(odontoid process)
Transverse
ligament
The atlas/axis complex
Atlas (C1)
Axis (C2)
Articulates
withoccipital
condyles
Articulates
with atlas

The Thoracic Vertebrae (6-7)
• T1–T12
• Has heart-shaped body
• Has a long, slender spinous process that points
inferiorly
• Has costal facets that articulate with the ribs

The Lumbar Vertebrae (7-6)
• L1–L5
• Vertebral body is significantly larger, thicker, and
more oval
• Has a massive, stumpy spinous process
• Has a bladelike transverse process

Figure 6-17 Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinous process
Lamina
Superior articular
process
Superior articular
facet
Transverse foramen
Vertebral
foramen
Vertebral
arch
Pedicle
Transverse
process Vertebral
body
Cervical vertebra, superior view
Spinous
process
Transverse
process
Transverse costal facet
for inferior rib
Lamina
Superior
articular
facet
Vertebral
foramen
Pedicle
Vertebral
body
Superior costal facet
for superior rib
Thoracic vertebra, superior view
Spinous process Superior articular facet
Lamina
Superior articular
process
Transverse
process
Transverse process
Pedicle
Vertebral
foramen
Vertebral
body
Lumbar vertebra, superior view

Figure 6-17a Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinous
process
Lamina
Superior
articular
process
Superior
articular
facet
Transverse
foramen
Vertebral
foramen
Vertebral
arch
Pedicle
Transverse
process Vertebral
body
Cervical vertebra, superior view

Figure 6-17b Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinous
process
Transverse
process
Transverse
costal facet
for inferior rib
Lamina
Superior
articular
facet Vertebral
foramen
Pedicle
Vertebral
body
Superior
costal facet
for superior rib
Thoracic vertebra, superior view

Figure 6-17c Typical Vertebrae of the Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Regions.
Spinous process Superior articular facet
Lamina
Superior
articular
processTransverse
process Transverse
process
Pedicle
Vertebral
foramen
Vertebral
body
Lumbar vertebra, superior view

The Sacrum (6-7)
• Has five fused vertebrae
• Protects organs in pelvic cavity
• Has lateral articulations with pelvic girdle
• Narrow caudal area is the apex; superior surface is the
base
• Which has the sacral promontory
• Sacral canal runs down posterior surface
• Sacral foramina on either side of median sacral crest

The Coccyx (6-7)
• Three to five fused vertebrae
• Provides attachment for muscles of the anal
opening

Figure 6-19 The Sacrum and Coccyx.
Entrance to
sacral canal
Articular
process
Sacral
promontory
Median
sacral crest
Sacral
foramina
Base
Sacral hiatus
Coccyx
Posterior view Anterior view
Apex

The Thoracic Cage (6-7)
• Made of thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the
sternum
• Forming the walls of the thoracic cavity
• Seven pairs of true ribs, called vertebrosternal
ribs
• Connect to sternum with costal cartilages
• Five pairs of false ribs, pairs 8–10, are
vertebrochondral ribs
• Last two pairs are floating ribs, or vertebral ribs

Three Parts of the Sternum (6-7)
• Also called the breastbone
1. The superior broad part is the manubrium; articulates with
the clavicle of the appendicular skeleton
2. The long body
3. The inferior tip, the xiphoid process

Figure 6-20 The Thoracic Cage.
Jugular notch
Clavicular articulation
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid
process
Costal
cartilages
Vertebrochondral
ribs
(ribs 8–10)
Floating ribs
(ribs 11–12)
Anterior view, showing the ribs,
costal cartilages, and the sternum
False ribs
(ribs 8–12)
True ribs
(ribs 1–7)
T
Sternum
Sternum
Jugular notch
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid
process
Costal
cartilages
Floating
ribs
False ribs
(8–12)
True ribs
(1–7)
Anterior view of the ribs, sternum, and
costal cartilages, shown diagrammatically
T11
T12
12
11
10 6
7
8
9
5
4
3
2
1
1

Checkpoint (6-7)
18. The mastoid and styloid processes are found on which
skull bone?
19. What bone contains the depression called the sella
turcica? What is located in the depression?
20. Which bone of the cranium articulates directly with the
vertebral column?
21. During baseball practice, a ball hits Casey in the eye,
fracturing bones directly above and below the orbit.
Which bones were broken?
22. What are the functions of the paranasal sinuses?
23. Why would a fracture of the coronoid process of the
mandible make it difficult to close the mouth?

Checkpoint (6-7)
24. What signs would you expect to see in a person suffering
from a fractured hyoid bone?
25. Joe suffered a hairline fracture at the base of the dens.
Which bone is fractured, and where would you find it?
26. In adults, five large vertebrae fuse to form what single
structure?
27. Why are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae so large?
28. What are the differences between true ribs and false
ribs?
29. Improper administration of CPR (cardiopulmonary
resuscitation) could result in a fracture of which bone(s)?

The Pectoral Girdle (6-8)
• Connects the upper limbs to the trunk
• Includes the clavicle and the scapula
• Clavicle
• S-shaped bone articulates with manubrium at sternal end
and with the acromion process of the scapula

The Scapula (6-8)
• A broad triangular bone with superior, medial,
and lateral borders
• The three tips are the superior, inferior, and lateral
angles
• Lateral angle, or head of the scapula, has the glenoid cavity
• Which articulates with the humerus to form the shoulder
joint

The Scapula (6-8)
• Subscapular fossa
• A depression in the anterior surface where the subscapularis
muscle is attached
• Coracoid process
• The smaller process
• Posterior and larger is the acromion process
• Which articulates with the distal end of the clavicle
• Scapular spine
• Divides the scapula into the supraspinous fossa and the
infraspinous fossa

Figure 6-21 The Clavicle.
LATERAL
Acromial end
Facet for
articulation
with acromion
Sternal
end
MEDIAL

Figure 6-22 The Scapula.
Acromion
Coracoid
process
Superior
border
Subscapular
fossa
Lateral border
Body Scapular
spine
Medial
border
Lateral
border
Medial
border
Inferior
angle
Glenoid
cavity
Coracoid
process
Acromion
Supraspinous
fossa
Superior
border
Coracoid
process
Acromion
Neck
Scapular
spine
Infraspinous
fossa
Lateral
border
Posterior viewLateral viewAnterior view
Body

The Upper Limb (6-8)
• Contains the bones of the arm
• The humerus
• Proximal area of the limb from the scapula to the elbow
• Contains the bones of the forearm
• The radius and ulna
• Contains the bones of the wrist and hand
• The carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges

The Humerus (6-8)
• Proximally, the round head articulates with the
scapula
• Greater tubercle is a rounded projection on
lateral surface of head
• Lesser tubercle lies anteriorly
• Is separated from the greater tubercle by the intertubercular
groove

The Humerus (6-8)
• The proximal shaft is rounded with deltoid
tuberosity along lateral border
• Distally, the medial and lateral epicondyles
project to either side
• Smooth condyle articulates with radius and ulna
• Medial trochlea extends from coronoid fossa to
olecranon fossa

The Humerus (6-8)
• The capitulum forms the lateral region of the
condyle
• The shallow radial fossa is proximal to the
capitulum

Figure 6-23 The Right Humerus.
Greater
tubercle
Intertubercular
groove
Lesser
tubercle
Greater tubercle
Head
Anatomical
neck
Surgical
neck
Deltoid
tuberosity
Groove for
radial nerve
Shaft
Lateral
epicondyle
Olecranon
fossa
Coronoid
fossa
Medial
epicondyle
Radial
fossa
TrochleaCapitulum Trochlea
Condyle
Anterior surface Posterior surface

The Ulna and Radius (6-8)
• Olecranon process of the ulna is the point of the
elbow
• The trochlear notch articulates with the trochlea
of the humerus
• The coronoid process forms the inferior lip of the
notch

The Ulna and Radius (6-8)
• The ulnar shaft ends distally in the short styloid
process
• Which sits on the distal end of the radius
• The neck of the radius is between the head and
the radial tuberosity
• Radial head articulates with capitulum of humerus
and radial notch of ulna
• Styloid process of radius articulates with wrist

Figure 6-24 The Right Radius and Ulna.
Olecranon
Trochlear notch
Coronoid process
Radial notch
Ulnar tuberosity
Head of radius
Neck of
radius
Radial tuberosity
RADIUS ULNA
Interosseous
membrane
ULNA
Lateral view of ulna,
showing trochlear
notch
Distal radio-ulnar joint
Ulnar head
Styloid process
of ulna
Styloid process
of radius
Anterior view

The Bones of the Wrists and Hands (6-8)
• Carpal bones
• The proximal row includes:
• The scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform bones
• The distal row includes:
• The trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate bones
• Five metacarpal bones
• Form the palm of the hand and articulate with the phalanges
• The pollex is the thumb

Figure 6-25 Bones of the Right Wrist and Hand.
ULNA
Styloid
process
of ulna
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Hamate
Metacarpal
bones
RADIUS
Styloid
process
of radius
Scaphoid
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Proximal
Middle
Distal
Phalanges
I
IIIIIIVV

The Pelvic Girdle (6-8)
• Articulates with the thigh bones
• More massive than the pectoral girdle
• Firmly attached to the axial skeleton
• Consists of two large hip bones or coxal bones
• Each a fusion of three bones
• The ilium, the ischium, and the pubis
• Hips articulate with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints, with
the femur at the acetabulum

The Hip Bone (6-8)
• The ilium is superior and the largest component
• Superior margin forms the iliac crest
• The ischium has a rough projection
• Called the ischial tuberosity or seat bone
• The ischium branches over to the pubis
• Creating the circle of the obturator foramen
• Pubic bones articulate at the pubic symphysis

The Pelvis (6-8)
• Consists of the hip bones, the sacrum, and the
coccyx
• Stabilized by a network of ligaments
• Differences in the characteristics of the male
versus female pelvis
• In females, the pelvis is better suited for pregnancy and
delivery
• Females have a broader lower pelvis, a larger pelvic outlet,
and a broader pubic angle

Figure 6-26 The Pelvis.
L
Sacrum
Ilium
Hip
bone
Ischium
Pubis
Coccyx
Sacroiliac
joint
5
Iliac crest
Pelvis, anterior view Acetabulum
Pubic
tubercle
Obturator
foramen
SACRUM
ILIUM
PUBIS
Pubic
symphysis
ISCHIUM
Adult male pelvis, anterior view
Ilium
Hip
bone
Pubis
Ischium
Ischial tuberosity
Right hip bone of the pelvis, lateral view

Figure 6-27 Differences in the Anatomy of the Pelvis in Males and Females.
Pelvic outlet,
relatively narrow
or less
Male
or more
Pelvic outlet,
relatively broad
Female
90˚ 100˚

The Lower Limb (6-8)
• Contains the bones of the thigh
• The femur is the longest bone in the body
• Contains the patella or kneecap
• Contains the bones of the leg
• The tibia and fibula
• Contains the bones of the ankle and foot

The Femur and Patella (6-8)
• Greater and lesser trochanters
• Extend laterally from neck and shaft
• Linea aspera
• Attachment for adductor muscles
• Large epicondyles on distal end
• Inferior surfaces form lateral and medial condyles
• The patella is the kneecap, sliding over the
anterior surface of the knee joint

Figure 6-28 The Right Femur.
Articular
surface
of head
Greater
trochanter
Greater
trochanter
Neck
Lesser
trochanter
Linea
aspera
Patellar
surface
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Lateral
epicondyle
Lateral
condyle
Medial
condyle
Lateral
condyle
Anterior surface Posterior surface
Shaft of
femur

The Tibia (6-8)
• Larger, medial shin bone with own lateral and
medial condyles
• That articulate with condyles of femur
• Anterior margin
• Extends down the anterior tibial surface
• Medial malleolus
• A large distal process that articulates with the ankle

The Fibula (6-8)
• Runs parallel and lateral to tibia
• Articulates with tibia inferior to the lateral tibial
condyle
• Does not articulate with the ankle
• Lateral malleolus is distal end of fibula
• Interosseus membrane connects tibia and fibula

Figure 6-29 The Right Tibia and Fibula.
Lateral tibial condyle
Head of fibula
Medial tibial
condyle
Tibial tuberosity
Interosseous membrane
Anterior margin
TIBIA
FIBULA
Lateral malleolus
(fibula)
Medial malleolus
(tibia)
Inferior articular
surface

The Bones of the Ankle and Foot (6-8)
• Seven ankle or tarsal bones include:
• The talus, calcaneus, navicular, and cuboid, and the medial,
intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms
• Only the talus articulates with the tibia and fibula
• The largest is the calcaneus, or heel bone
• The metatarsals and phalanges are in the same
pattern as in the hand
• Big toe is hallux

Figure 6-30a The Bones of the Ankle and Foot.
Calcaneus
Trochlea
of talus
Cuboid
Talus
Navicular
Cuneiform bones
Lateral
Intermediate
Medial
Metatarsal bones
Hallux
Proximal
phalanx
Distal phalanx
Phalanges
Proximal
Middle
Distal
Superior view, right foot
IV
V
III II I

Figure 6-30b The Bones of the Ankle and Foot.
Medial
cuneiform
bone
Navicular Talus
Metatarsal
bonesPhalanges
Medial view, right foot
Calcaneus

Checkpoint (6-8)
30. In what way would a broken clavicle affect the mobility of
the scapula?
31. The rounded projections on either side of the elbow are
parts of which bone?
32. Which of the two bones of the forearm is lateral in the
anatomical position?
33. Which three bones make up a hip bone?
34. The fibula neither participates in the knee joint nor bears
weight. When it is fractured, however, walking becomes
difficult. Why?
35. While jumping off the back steps of his house, 10-year-
old Cesar lands on his right heel and breaks his foot.
Which bone is most likely broken?

Categories of Joints (6-9)
• Classified by structure
• Based on anatomy of joints
• Includes fibrous, cartilaginous (both with limited
movement), and synovial (freely movable)
• Classified by function
• Based on range of motion
• Includes synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly
movable), and diarthrosis (freely movable)

Table 6-2 A Functional and Structural Classifi cation of Articulations

Immovable Joints or Synarthroses (6-9)
• Can be fibrous or cartilaginous
• Sutures of the skull connected with dense
connective tissue
• Gomphosis
• A ligament binding each tooth in the socket
• Synchondrosis
• A rigid cartilaginous connection
• For example, between the first pair of ribs and the sternum

Freely Movable Joints or Diarthroses (6-9)
• Synovial joints with a wide range of motion
• Usually found at the ends of long bones
• Ends of bones covered with articular cartilages
• Surrounded with a fibrous joint capsule
• Inner surfaces are lined with the synovial membrane
• Synovial fluid in the joint reduces friction

Freely Movable Joints or Diarthroses (6-9)
• Some synovial joints have additional padding
• In the form of menisci
• For example, in the knee
• Fat pads can also act as cushions
• Ligaments join bone to bone
• May be found inside and/or outside the joint capsule
• Bursae are packets of connective tissue
containing synovial fluid
• They reduce friction and absorb shock

Figure 6-31 The Structure of Synovial Joints.
Marrow cavity
Spongy bone
Periosteum
Fibrous joint capsule
Synovial membrane
Articular cartilages
Joint cavity
(containing
synovial fluid)
Compact bone
Bursa
Joint capsule
Synovial
membrane
Meniscus
Intracapsular
ligament
Patella
Quadriceps tendon
Articular cartilage
Fat pad
Patellar ligament
Joint cavity
Meniscus
Femur
Tibi
a
Synovial joint, sagittal section Knee joint, sagittal section

Checkpoint (6-9)
36. Name and describe the three types of joints as
classified by the amount of movement possible.
37. In a newborn, the large bones of the skull are
joined by fibrous connective tissue. Which type
of joint are these? These skull bones later grow,
interlock, and form immovable joints. Which type
of joint are these?

Types of Synovial Joint Movement (6-10)
• Gliding
• When two opposing surfaces slide past each other
• For example, the carpal bones
• Angular movement includes:
• Flexion which decreases the angle of two long bones
• Extension increases the angle
• Hip and shoulder flex by moving anteriorly
• Extend by moving posteriorly
• Hyperextension is extension beyond anatomical position

Angular Movement (6-10)
• Abduction
• Moves a limb away from the midline
• For example, separating the fingers
• Adduction
• Moves a limb toward the midline
• For example, bringing the fingers together
• Circumduction
• Moves the limbs in a loop

Figure 6-32 Angular Movements.
Extension
Flexion Hyperextension
Flexion
Extension
Flexion
Hyperextension
Extension
Hyper-
extension
Flexion
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Extension
Abduction
Adduction
Adduction
Adduction Abduction
Flexion/extension Abduction/adduction
Adduction/abduction Circumduction

Figure 6-32a Angular Movements.
Extension
Flexion Hyperextension
Flexion
Extension
Flexion
Hyperextension
Extension
Hyper-
extension
Flexion
Extension
Flexion/extension

Figure 6-32b Angular Movements.
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Adduction
Abduction
Abduction
Adduction
Adduction
Abduction/adduction

Figure 6-32c Angular Movements.
Adduction Abduction
Adduction/abduction

Figure 6-32d Angular Movements.
Circumduction

Rotational Joint Movements (6-10)
• Involves turning around the longitudinal axis of the
body or limb
• For example, turning the head
• Rotation of the distal end of the radius across the
ulna is a form of rotation
• Pronation
• The palm is facing the front and is then rotated to the back
• Supination
• Is the opposite, turning the palm forward

Figure 6-33 Rotational Movements.
Pronation
Supination Pronation
Supination
Medial
(internal)
rotation
Lateral
(external)
rotation
Right
rotation
Left
rotation
Head rotation

Special Joint Movements (6-10)
• Inversion twists the sole of the foot inward
• Eversion twists it outward
• Dorsiflexion elevates the sole at the ankle,
putting the heel down
• Plantar flexion is to point the toes
• Opposition is moving the thumb toward the palm
to grasp
• Reposition returns it from opposition

Special Joint Movements (6-10)
• Elevation and depression
• Occurs when a structure moves superiorly and inferiorly
• For example, closing and opening your mandible
• Lateral flexion
• Is a bending of the vertebral column to the side

Figure 6-34 Special Movements.
Eversion Inversion Opposition
Retraction Protraction Depression Elevation Lateral flexion
Dorsiflexion
(flexion at ankle)
Plantar
flexion
(extension at ankle)

Types of Synovial Joints (6-10)
• Gliding joints
• Have flat or slightly curved faces
• Movement is slight
• Hinge joints
• Permit angular movement in one plane
• Like opening and closing a door
• Pivot joints
• Permit rotation only
• Like turning the head or supinating and pronating the palm

• Condylar joints
• Occur where an oval surface nests with a depression on the
other bone
• Allowing for angular motion in two planes, along or across
the length of the oval
• Saddle joints
• Have two bones that each have a concave face on one axis
and convex on the other
• Allowing for circumduction, but not rotation

• Ball-and-socket joints
• Occur where the end of one bone is a round head that nests
within the cup-shaped depression in the other bone
• Allow for a wide range of motion
• For example, the hip and shoulder joints

Figure 6-35 Synovial Joints
Movement: multidirectional
in a single plane
Movement: angular
in a single plane
Movement:
rotational in a
single plane
Movement:
angular in two
planes
Movement: angular
in two planes, and
circumduction
Movement: angular,
rotational, and
circumduction
Gliding joint
Hinge joint
Pivot joint
Condylar joint
Saddle joint
Ball-and-socket joint
Manubrium
Clavicle
Humerus
Ulna
Atlas
Axis
Scaphoid
bone
UlnaRadius
Metacarpal
bone of
thumb
Scapula
Humerus
SPOTLIGHT
FIGURE 6-35
Synovial Joints
Trapezium

Checkpoint (6-10)
38. Give the proper term for each of the following
types of motion:
(a) moving the humerus away from the longitudinal axis of
the body,
(b) turning the palms so that they face forward, and
(c) bending the elbow.
39. Which movements are associated with hinge
joints?

Intervertebral Articulations (6-11)
• From the axis to the sacrum
• Include gliding joints between the superior and
inferior articular processes
• And symphyseal joints between the vertebral bodies
• Separated and padded by intervertebral discs
• Made of a tough outer fibrocartilage surrounding a gelatinous
core

Figure 6-36 Intervertebral Articulations.
Intervertebral
foramen
Superior
articular
facet
Posterior
ligaments
Superior
articular
process
Inferior
articular
process
Intervertebral
Disc
Inner gelantinous
layer
Outer
fibrocartilage layer
Spinal cord
Spinal nerve
Anterior
longitudinal
ligament

The Shoulder Joint (6-11)
• Most range of motion of any joint
• Therefore, more likely to dislocate
• Ball-and-socket structure with many bursae
• Muscles that surround and move the shoulder joint
form the rotator cuff
PLAYPLAY ANIMATION Humerus Circumduction

Figure 6-37 The Shoulder Joint.
Ligaments interconnecting
clavicle and scapula
Tendon of
supraspinatus
muscle
Acromion
Joint
capsule
Subdeltoid
bursa
Synovial
membrane
Humerus
Joint
capsule
Joint
cavity
Articular
cartilages
Coracoid
process
Scapula
Clavicle

The Elbow Joint (6-11)
• Hinge joint is found between the humerus and
ulna
• A weak joint is between the humerus and radius
• Very stable due to interlocking of humerus and
ulna
• Very thick joint capsule and very strong ligaments
PLAYPLAY ANIMATION Elbow Flexion/Extension

Figure 6-38 The Elbow Joint.
Coronoid fossa
Joint capsule
Coronoid
process
Synovial membrane
Tendon of
biceps brachii
Ulna Radius Articular cartilage
Bursa
Olecranon
Trochlea
Triceps
tendon
Joint
capsule
Olecranon
fossa
Humerus

The Hip Joint (6-11)
• Ball-and-socket joint between the head of the
femur and the acetabulum of the coxal bone
• Is very dense and strong
• Due to extensive joint capsule, supporting ligaments, and
strong surrounding muscles

Figure 6-39 The Hip Joint.
Greater
trochanter
Reinforcing
ligaments
Joint
capsule
The hip joint is extremely strong and stable, in part because of the
massive joint capsule and surrounding ligaments.
Acetabulum
Articular cartilage
Synovial membrane
Joint capsule
Fat pad
Ligament of the
femoral head
Joint
capsuleFemur
This sectional view of the right hip shows the structure of the joint
and the position of the ligament of the fermoral head.

The Knee Joint (6-11)
• Complex joint between distal femoral and proximal
tibial condyles
• And between the patella and femur
• Has multiple joint capsules
• And condyles are cushioned by the medial and lateral
menisci
• Multiple ligaments from different angles support
the knee
• Patella is within quadriceps tendon
• Patellar ligament links to tibial anterior surface

Figure 6-40 The Knee Joint.
Quadriceps
tendon
Patella
Fibular
collateral
ligament
Patellar
ligament
Tibia
Joint
capsule
Tibial
collateral
ligament
Anterior view of the right knee joint,
superficial layer
Patellar
surface
Posterior
cruciate
ligamentFibular
collateral
ligament
Lateral
meniscus
Cut
tendon
Fibula
Medial
condyle
Tibial
collateral
ligament
Medial
meniscus
Anterior
cruciate
ligament
Lateral
condyle
Tibia
Deep anterior view of the right
knee when flexed

Checkpoint (6-11)
40. Would a tennis player or a jogger be more likely to
develop inflammation of the subdeltoid bursa? Why?
41. Daphne falls on her hands with her elbows slightly
flexed. After the fall, she can't move her left arm at the
elbow. If a fracture exists, which bone is most likely
broken?
42. Why is a complete dislocation of the knee joint an
infrequent event?
43. What signs would you expect to see in an individual who
has damaged the menisci of the knee joint?

Skeletal Support of Other Body Systems (6-12)
• Balance between bone formation and recycling
creates dynamic interactions with other systems
• For example, bones:
• Provide attachments for muscles
• Interact with cardiovascular and lymphatic systems
• Are under the control of the endocrine system
• Digestive and urinary systems play a role in calcium and
phosphate balance

Figure 6-41
The skeletal system
provides structural
support and protection for
the body. The skeleton
also stores calcium,
phosphate, and other
minerals necessary for
many functions in other
organ systems. In
addition, the lipids in the
yellow marrow serve as
an energy reserve and
blood cell production
occurs in the red
marrow.
Synthesizes vitamin D3, essential
for calcium and phosphorus
absorption (bone maintenance
and growth)
Provides structural
support
Body SystemSkeletal System
SYSTEM INTEGRATOR
Skeletal SystemBody System
Integum-
entary
The SKELETAL System
Integumentary
(Page138)
Muscular
(Page241)
Nervous
(Page302)
Endocrine
(Page376)
Cardiovascular
(Page467)
Lymphatic
(Page500)
Respiratory
(Page532)
Digestive
(Page572)
Urinary
(Page637)
Reproductive
(Page671)

Checkpoint (6-12)
44. Describe the functional relationship between the
skeletal system and the integumentary system.

163 ch 06_lecture_presentation

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