Ch. 3 of the CommonKADS textbook

1. CommonKADS
Context Models
Organization Model
Task Model
Agent Model

2. Context models 2
Knowledge always functions
within an organizational context
■ Why context modelling?
■ Role of aspect models: organization, task, and agent
models
■ Steps and techniques in knowledge-oriented business
analysis
■ Illustrations: ice-cream case study, housing case study

3. Context models 3
Why context modeling?
■ Often difficult to identify profitable use of (knowledge)
technology
■ Laboratory is different from the ''real'' world
■ Acceptability to users very important
■ Fielding into ongoing process not self evident
■ Often not clear what additional measures to take

4. Context models 4
Goals for context modeling
■ Identify problems and opportunities
■ Decide about solutions and their feasibility
■ Improve tasks and task-related knowledge
■ Plan for needed organizational changes

5. Context models 5
Role of knowledge systems
■ "automation" is not the right way to look at KSs
■ tasks are usually too complex
■ much better view: KS as process-improvement tool
■ typical role of KS: active intelligent assistant

6. Context models 6
■ Step 1: Carry out a scoping and feasibility study
➤ Tool: Organization Model (OM)
■ Step 2: Carry out impact and improvement study
➤ Tool: Task and Agent Models (TM, AM)
■ zooming in/refinement of organization model
■ Each study consists of an analysis part and a
“constructive” decision-making part
Context modelling process

7. Context models 7
Step 1: scoping and feasibility
study
■ Step 1a: analysis
➤ Identify problem/opportunity areas and potential solutions
➤ Put them into a wider organizational perspective.
■ Step 1b: synthesis
➤ Decide about economic, technical and project feasibility
➤ Select the most promising focus area and target solution.

8. Context models 8
Step 2: impacts and
improvements study
■ Step 2a: analysis
➤ study interrelationships between the task, agents involved,
and use of knowledge for successful performance
➤ what improvements may be achieved here?
■ Step 2b: synthesis
➤ Decide about organizational measures and task changes,
➤ Ensure organizational acceptance and integration of a
knowledge system solution

9. Context models 9
Three context models
■ scope and feasibility study
➤ organization model (OM)
➤ description and analysis of the broader organizational
environment
■ impacts and improvements study
➤ task model (TM) and agent model (AM)
➤ more focused and detailed
➤ zooms in on the relevant part of the organization
➤ TM: tasks plus knowledge directly related to the target
problem
➤ AM: agents involved in TM tasks

10. Context models 10
Worksheets
■ Modeling process supported by worksheets
➤ Organization model: 5 worksheets
➤ Task model: 2 worksheets
➤ Agent model: 1 worksheet
➤ Summary: 1 worksheet
■ Act as checklist and information archive
■ Should be used flexibly

11. Context models 11
How to analyze a knowledge-
intensive organization?
■ describe organization aspects:
➤ opportunity/problems portfolio
➤ business context, goals, strategy
➤ internal organization:
– structure
– processes
– people (staff: functional roles)
– power and culture
– resources (knowledge, support systems, equipment,…)
■ do this for both current and future organization
➤ comparison, and first decisions on where to go

12. Context models 12
Worksheets
Organization Model
Org anization
Model
P roblems
&
Opportunities
General
Context
(Mission,
S trategy,
E nvironment,
CS F's,...)
P otential
S olutions
OM-­‐1 OM-­‐2
Organization
Focus
Area
Description:
S tructure
P rocess
P eople
Culture
&
P ower
Resources
K nowledge
OM-­‐3 OM-­‐4
P rocess
Breakdown
K nowledge
Assets

13. Context models 13
OM-1: problem /opportunity
identification
■ shortlist of perceived problems/opportunities
■ organizational context = invariant part
➤ mission, vision, goals of the organization
➤ important external factors
➤ strategy of the organization, value chain
■ list possible solutions
➤ for the perceived problems and opportunities
➤ compatible with organizational context.
■ techniques: interviews, brainstorming

14. Context models 14
Case Study: Ice-cream
product development
■ Unilever food/personal care industry worldwide
■ First analysis step by worksheet OM-1:
➤ Perceived problem/opportunity issues:
– Speed-up time to market of new ice-cream products
– Leverage best-practice knowledge throughout the company
➤ Vision: P roduct
formulation
P roduction
processes
Manufacturing
P roduct
properties
(physical,
sensory)
Marketing
C onsumer
preferences
F eedback
learning
loop

15. Context models 15
OM-1 for Housing
Organization Model Problems and Opportunities
Worksheet OM-1
Problems and
opportunities
assessment takes too much time
not sufficient time for urgent cases
Organizational
context
Mission: transparency of procedure, clear
applicant responsibility
External actors: local council, public
opinion, national regulations, …
Strategy: broaden scope of market
Solutions 1. Automated assessment system &
2. Training program for assessors to be
come urgency handlers

16. Context models 16
Case: “Housing”
■ Local government institution is responsible for
assignment of rental houses to applicants
■ Transparent assignment procedure
➤ two-weekly magazine with house offers
➤ publication of results
■ Partially automated process
■ Existing databases of applicants and residences

17. Context models 17
Problem & opportunity
■ Two sides of the same coin
■ Opportunity:
➤ a part of the business process in which it might be useful to
introduce knowledge technology
■ Problem:
➤ an opportunity, that is currently being perceived as a
problem in the organization

18. Context models 18
Organization boundary
■ Sometimes difficult to define the scope of what is “the
organization”
■ Example in the housing domain:
➤ baseline organization: assignment office
➤ includes applicants?
➤ includes rental agencies?
■ Decide on variant and invariant parts
➤ invariant parts are assumed to be stable from the
development point of view

19. Context models 19
OM-2: variant aspects
■ refers to a single problem-opportunity area of OM-1
■ describes the subpart of the organization involved
■ describes the aspects that might change or be
affected by a knowledge-system solution

20. Context models 20
Variant aspects OM-2 (1)
■ structure
➤ structure chart of departments, groups, units
■ process
➤ decomposed into tasks plus dependencies
➤ detailed in Worksheet OM-3
■ people
➤ staff members involved as actors or stakeholders
– decision makers, providers, users, customers
➤ not "actual" people but functional roles

21. Context models 21
Variant aspects OM-2 (2)
■ resources
➤ information systems
➤ equipment and materials
➤ non-knowledge skills and competencies.
■ knowledge
➤ special resource in this context
➤ detailed in Worksheet OM-4
■ culture and power
➤ "unwritten rules of the game”, styles of working and
communicating, informal relationships

22. Context models 22
OM-2: ice-cream organization
analysis
■ Example part of OM-2 analysis:
➤ Structure
General
director
Technical
director
Finance
director
Personnel
director
Marketing
& Sales
director
Information
& IT
management
Logistics
management
Technical Dept.
management
Development Dept.
management
Manufacturing
management
Ice Cream
development
Quality
assurance
Packaging
design
Coldstore
& Warehouse
management

23. Context models 23
Structure & people “Housing”
directorate
director
deputy
director
policy
department
statistical
analyst
staff
member
residence
assig nment
data
entry
assigner
computer
support
D B
administrator
system
analyst
public
service
magazine
editor
magazine
producer
information
officer

24. Context models 24
Process “Housing”
primary
proces s
s econdary
proces s
data
entry
of
applications
magazine
production
application
assessment
residence
assignment
statistical
analysis
policy
information
:residence
assignments

25. Context models 25
Remainder of OM-2 for
“Housing”
Organization model Variant aspects: Worksheet OM-2
Resources Existing database of applicants and residences
Priority calculator for computing a priority list
of applicants for a residence.
Knowledge Assessment criteria: knowledge for judging
correctness of individual applications
Assignment rules: knowledge used for
selecting an applicant for a particular house.
Urgency rules: special rules and regulations for
urgent cases (e.g., handicapped people).
Culture & power Hierarchical organization
Employees view the future with some trepidation
Management style: history as civil servant

26. Context models 26
OM-3: Process Breakdown
■ Key element => described in more detail
■ Fill-in for each task in the Process description
■ OM-3 elements:
➤ Task: name + identifier
➤ Performed by: agent (People or Resource)
➤ Where?: location in Structure
➤ Knowledge required: list of Knowledge assets
➤ Knowledge-intensive?: yes/no
➤ Significance: qualitative value, e.g. five-point scale

27. Context models 27
OM-3 example: breakdown of
ice-cream process
■ In ice-cream product development the main
subprocesses are:
➤ product idea generation
➤ feasibility phase
➤ production and sales planning
➤ implementation and role-out
➤ post-launch review
■ All subprocesses are knowledge-intensive, but
feasibility and planning phases in particular

28. Context models 28
Example OM-3 for “Housing”
Task Performed by Where Knowledge
asset(s)
KI? Signifi-
cance
1. Magazine
production
Magazine
editor
Public service - No 3
2. Data entry
applications
Data typist /
automated
telephone
Residence
assignment
- No 2
3. Application
assessment
Assigner Residence
assignment
Assessment
criteria
Yes 5
4. Residence
assignment
Assigner Residence
Assignment
Assignment &
urgency rules
Yes 5

29. Context models 29
OM-4: Knowledge Assets
■ details the "Knowledge" element of OM-2
■ coarse-grained description
➤ refined in task model and knowledge model
■ elements:
➤ Knowledge Asset: Name (OM-3)
➤ Possessed by: Agent (OM-3)
➤ Used in: Task ID (OM-3)
➤ Right Form? Right Place? Right Time? Right Quality?
– yes/no + comments

30. Context models 30
OM-4: knowledge assets for
ice-cream business process

31. Context models 31
Knowledge asset “Housing”
■ Knowledge asset:
➤ “general residence-application norms”
■ right form?
➤ no, should be also in electronic form
■ right place, time, quality?
➤ yes

32. Context models 32
Feasibility document contents
■ One copy of Worksheet OM-1
■ For each problem/opportunity area: OM-2
■ For each task: OM-3
■ For each knowledge asset: OM-4
■ For each suggested solution: decision to "automate"
yes/no plus reasons
➤ Worksheet OM-5: checklist for this decision
■ Proposed actions

33. Context models 33
Business Feasibility
■ expected benefits
➤ tangible (economic) and intangible
■ expected added value
■ expected costs
■ comparison to possible alternative solutions
■ organizational changes required
■ economic and business risks and uncertainties

34. Context models 34
Technical Feasibility
■ complexity of knowledge/reasoning process
➤ availability of state-of-the-art methods
➤ has it been done before?
■ critical aspects involved?
➤ time, quality, needed resources
■ measurable success factors
➤ tests for validity, quality and performance
■ complexity of user/system interaction
➤ availability of state-of-the-art methods

35. Context models 35
Project Feasibility
■ commitment from the agents and stakeholders
■ availability of resources in terms of time, budget,
equipment, staff
■ availablity of required knowledge and other
competencies
■ realistic expectations
■ adequate project organization and external
communication

36. Context models 36
Proposed Actions
■ recommended concrete steps for action
➤ List of focus areas
➤ Target solution for focus area
➤ Expected results and benefits
➤ Required project actions
➤ When to reconsider?

37. Context models 37
OM-5: feasibility decision document
for ice-cream example
■ Business, technical and project feasibility
■ Proposed actions for solution direction
• Ice-cream case study:
• Clarification of knowledge bottlenecks achieved
• Different knowledge improvement scenarios outlined
• Requirements for technical and project feasibility stated
• Proposed actions:
• Prioritize knowledge improvement scenarios as next step
• ….

38. Context models 38
Feasibility “Housing”
■ Automation of “application assignment”
➤ feasible from all perspectives
■ Actions
➤ application construction
➤ job changes within assignment department
➤ provide additional training
➤ consider also resource transfer to computer dept.

39. Context models 39
Case: social security services
(SSS)
■ Problem-opportunity-context: see book
■ Problem:
laws and regulations are so complex
=> long time to reach a decision => backlog
=> social uproar => headlines in the papers
■ Solution (a priori formulated by SSS management):
knowledge system stores the legal decision-making knowledge
=> backlog reduced

40. Context models 40
SSS scope and feasibility
decision making
■ Context analysis: see book
■ Solution: "KS for solving backlog problem"
➤ Business feasibility
– does not solve the problem as main task load is in archiving
– requires organizational changes
– status of people will change
➤ Technical/project feasibility
– state-of-the-art work
➤ Proposed actions
– redirect the project to simplify procedures for archiving and
reporting.

41. Context models 41
Next step of context modelling:
zooming in on tasks
■ Task = subpart of a business process
■ goal-oriented value-adding activity
■ handles inputs and delivers desired outputs
➤ in a structured and controlled way
■ consumes resources;
■ requires (and provides) knowledge/skills
■ adheres to quality and performance criteria
■ carried out by responsible and accountable agents

42. Context models 42
Task Model aspects
Knowledge and"
Competences"
Objects"
Structure"
(Data)!
Time and"
Control!
Performance"
and Quality"
Resources"
Agents"
Goal and"
Value"
(Sub)Function"
and Flow"
TASK
MODEL!
Managerial!
View!
Information
Systems (3D)
View!

43. Context models 43
TM-1: Task Analysis
■ zoom in on a task
➤ more detailed description than OM-3
■ link to BPR/BPA methods
➤ task is part of business process
■ link to SE analysis model
➤ dependency and flow
➤ data, function, control view on task

44. Context models 44
Task description: internal
■ data dependency and data flow
➤ preceding task, follow-up tasks
■ objects handled
➤ simple information model
■ timing & control
➤ frequency, duration, when performed
■ constraints: pre- and post-conditions

45. Context models 45
TM-1: Top-level task model
■ Fill in TM components (see TM Figure)
– Example: task decomposition and flow of feasibility phase
– Gives first-cut version for task layer of knowledge model
Marketing
brief
D evelop
product
concept
P roduct
description
P roduce
product
prototypes
P roduct
prototypes
C arry
out
prototype
tests
D iscuss
results
with
marketing
(Iteratively)
R evise
product
description
and/or
prototypes
F inal
product
s pecification

46. Context models 46
Data flow “Housing”
applicant
rental
agency
(external)
actor
data
entry
checking
assessment
assign
valid
applications
assignments
database
of
residences
&
applicants processing
function
data
store
data
flow
Legend
free
residence
relevant
applications
application
data
application
application
assignment

47. Context models 47
Control flow “Housing”
data
entry
checking
as s es s ing
application
received
before
deadline
[data
=
incorrect]
[decision
=
eligible]
[decision
=
not
eligible]
[data
=
correct]
garbage
bin
further
processing

48. Context models 48
Task description: external
■ goal and value
■ agents involved
■ knowledge:
➤ list of knowledge items further detailed in TM-2
■ other competencies and skills
■ resources
➤ refinement of OM-2
■ quality and performance:
➤ yardsticks for measuring task execution

49. Context models 49
TM-2:
knowledge item description
■ Possessed by: Agent
■ Used in:Task ID
■ Domain
➤ specialist field, discipline, branch of science or engineering,
professional community
■ Indicate nature, form and availability of knowledge
➤ tick if bottleneck

50. Context models 50
Characterizations of
knowledge items
■ Nature
➤ formal, rigorous; empirical, quantitative; heuristic, rules of
thumb, .....
■ Form
➤ mind, paper, electronic, action skill, ...
■ Availability
➤ limitations in time, space, access, quality, form

51. Context models 51
TM-2: Detailing of knowledge
items & bottlenecks
Ice-cream case:
■ Knowledge item:
consumer desires
■ Bottlenecks exist in:
➤ Nature: incomplete, tacit,
hard to verify
➤ Form: in mind of marketers
only
➤ Availability: limitations in
space and quality

52. Context models 52
Agent Model
■ OM and TM => process/task perspective
■ AM: perspective of individual agents
➤ staff, software systems
■ large part: rearrangement of information already in
other worksheets
➤ just a single worksheet
■ agent view useful for judging impact
➤ See attitude matrix
■ important input for communication model

53. Context models 53
Agent Worksheet AM-1:
the “assigner” agent
Name Assigner
Organization Residence-assignment department
Involved In 3. Application assessment
4. Residence assignment
Communicates with Database
Priority calculator
Knowledge Assessment criteria
Assignment rules
Urgency rules
Other competencies Ability to handle problematic non-standard
cases
Responsibilities
& constraints
Make sure that people are treated equally (no
favors). This has been a problem in the past

54. Context models 54
Final step: impacts and and
improvements document
■ checklist in Worksheet OTA-1
■ measures for improvement accompany development
work
■ major issues for decision making:
➤ organizational changes recommended
➤ measures for specific tasks and/or workers
➤ improvements regarding use and availability of knowledge
➤ is the expected result sufficient?
➤ future directions

55. Context models 55
Impacts and Changes (1):
Organization as a whole
■ Structure
■ Process
■ Resources
■ People
■ Knowledge
■ Culture and Power

56. Context models 56
Impacts and Changes (2):
Task/Agent-Specific
■ comparison: future/current models
■ impact and change types:
➤ task lay-out
➤ needed resources
➤ performance and quality criteria
➤ staffing, involved agents
➤ individual positions, responsibilities, authority, constraints in task
execution
➤ knowledge and competencies
➤ communication

57. Context models 57
Proposed Actions
■ improvements/changes in organization
■ accompanying measures
➤ training, facilities
■ further project action
■ when to reconsider

58. Context models 58
OTA-1: impacts and
improvements decisions
■ Ice-cream case: processing scenario ranks best
■ Proposed actions:
– Develop processing KBS module
– Archive past formulations
– Structured knowledge management for knowledge sharing

59. Context models 59
Stakeholder-driven approach in
Unilever PARIS ice-cream project
Identify stakeholders
and project sponsors
Interview the
stakeholders
Develop factory
assessment approach
Assess factories
System storyboards
Follow-up
project plan
& agreement
Feasibility study results

60. Context models 60
Actors and stakeholders:
attitudes and commitments
■ Important guideline: always consider attitudes of
actors and stakeholders toward changes
■ Ask yourself: is there a sufficient basis to successfully
carry through proposed changes?
– Technique: stakeholder attitude matrix
– (EMS case, IEEE Intell. Syst. 1997)
Stakeholder/Solution SQ I II III IV V VI
Hospital specialist - + + + + + +
General Practitioner o + o - - - -
EMS personnel o + + + + - -
Consumer - + + + + o +
(SQ = status quo)

61. Context models 61
Attitude matrix: internal
Sponsor/Solutions SQ I II III IV V VI
Manager - - + o + - -
System manager - o o o + o o
Dispatcher - - + + o - -
Paramedic - o + + + + -
Driver - o o o o + +
Consumer - + + + + + +

62. Context models 62
Summary
■ Organizational aspects: critical success factor
■ Envisaged systems must be well-integrated
■ Step 1: portfolio of solutions+ feasibility
➤ organization model
➤ feasibility document
■ Step 2: zoom in and assess changes/measures
➤ task, knowledge item, and agent descriptions
➤ plan for organizational changes
■ Context analysis is wider applicable

63. Context models 63
Overall process of business
analysis in KE&M
Refine
[If
infeasible]
OM-­‐1
worksheet:
problems,
solutions,
context
OM-­‐2
worksheet:
description
of
organization
focus
area
OM-­‐4
worksheet:
knowledge
assets
OM-­‐3
worksheet:
process
breakdown
OM-­‐5
worksheet:
Judge
Feasibility
(Decision
Document)
TM-­‐1
worksheet:
task
analysis
TM-­‐2
worksheet:
knowledge
item
analysis
AM-­‐1
worksheet:
agent
model
OTA-­‐1
worksheet:
Assess
Impacts
&
Changes
(Decision
Document)
Refine
Integrate
Integrate
[If
feasible]
Integrate,
comparing
both
the
old
and
new
situations
Start
Stop
Context
Analysis
Ready

64. Context models 64
Exercise: knowledge workshop
■ Management group discussions, structured by using
worksheets OM1-5, TM1-2, OTA-1, as a self-assessment
instrument for management in own area of responsibility
■ Used by, e.g., Unilever and Dutch Tax Authority
■ In particular:
➤ Focus on valuable business area or process, sketch the workflow
of this process, and list problem/opportunity portfolio
➤ Identify the knowledge assets of importance to this process
➤ Investigate whether there exists bottlenecks here (OM-4, TM-2)
➤ Devise possible solutions and analyze their feasibility
– Problem/cause/solution QFD-type matrices
– Stakeholder attitude matrices
➤ Take follow-up managerial action