1. Police in America
Chapter Twelve
Legitimacy and
Community
Relations
McGraw-Hill
© 2013 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.

2. Definition of Police-Community
Relations


Refers primarily to the relations between the
police and racial and ethnic minority
communities.
From PCR to Legitimacy
 Police need to establish trust and cooperation with
all segments of the community they serve


Policing a Multicultural Society
Definitions of Race and Ethnicity
 Race – refers to the major biological divisions of the
people of the world
 Ethnicity- refers to cultural differences such as
language, religion, family patterns, and foodways
12-2

3. The Major Racial and Ethnic Minority
Groups


African Americans
Hispanics/Latinos
 More likely to experience
police-initiated contact
 Largest racial or ethnic
minority group by 2010
 Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba,
Haiti, Dominican Republic,
Central and South America

Arabs
 Very diverse group
 Majority trace background to
Lebanon
 Most are native-born
Americans
 Muslim religion

Native American
 Higher crime rate on
reservation
 Tribal police

Asian Americans
 Vietnamese, Cambodians are
newest immigrants

Immigrants
 Primary language is not
English
 Report crimes at lower rates
than other Americans
 Calls for bilingual officers to
accommodate immigrants
12-3

4. Not Just Race and Ethnicity:
Gender and Sexual Preference


Police-community relations problems also exist with the
following groups:
 Women
 Gay men
 Lesbians
 Transgendered persons
Problems of sexual harassment, disrespect, and physical
abuse
12-4

5. Discrimination versus Disparity
 Discrimination: differential treatment
based on some extralegal category such
as race, ethnicity or gender.
 Disparity: different outcomes that are not
necessarily caused by differential
treatment
12-5

6. A Contextual Approach to PoliceCitizen Interactions
 Experiences with police vary according to
department, type of police action, the
departmental unit involved, etc.
 Some departments have better relations with
people of color minority communities
 Interactions are different according to
location, police unit, and enforcement activity
12-6

7. Public Opinion and the Police






The vast majority of Americans have a positive attitude
toward the police.
Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate the police
less favorably than whites.
A majority of African Americans (76%) and Hispanics
give the police a generally favorable rating.
Young people rate the police less favorably than older
people.
Poor people, less educated people, and crime victims
tend to rate the police lower than others.
There are significant differences in opinions about the
police in different cities.
12-7

8. Race and Ethnicity
 2011 survey showed that 24% of African
Americans had little to no confidence in
police (compared to 6% of whites)
 Attitudes about police roles can vary
according to social class, as well as race
and ethnicity
 Thus, middle-class and lower-class African
Americans do not share identical attitudes
12-8

9. Attitudes about Police Use of Force
 Hispanics and African Americans are
twice as likely to believe the police will use
excessive force in their communities
 In a survey of Cincinnati residents, 46.6%
of African Americans indicated they had
been personally “hassled” by the police
 Compared to only 9.6% of whites
12-9

10. Social Class
 In 2011, 30% of people with incomes
lower than $20,000 had little to no
confidence in police
 Compared to 1% of people with incomes
above $50,000
12-10

11. Age: Young People and the Police
 Age consistently ranks second to race and
ethnicity as a factor in public attitudes
toward police
 A 2011 survey found that 12% of people
between the ages of 18-29 had little to no
confidence in the police
 Compared with only 8% of people between 50
and 64
12-11

12. Other Demographic Factors
 Where You Live: Neighborhood Quality of
Life
 Crime Victimization
 Gender
 Level of Education
12-12

13. Community Policing
 Community policing has a positive impact
on citizens’ attitudes toward the police
 A study by Weitzer and Tuch found that
people who believe their police department
engages in community policing in their
neighborhood are less likely to believe that
the police use excessive force
12-13

14. Intercity Variations
 There are important differences in public
attitudes among cities that apparently reflect
differences in the activities and reputations
of these departments
 The Case of Detroit
• More African Americans indicated they were satisfied
with the police than whites
• African Americans dominated the local political
establishment
• Thus, African Americans are more likely than whites
to identify positively with the police and other parts of
the political system
12-14

15. The Impact of Controversial
Incidents
 Specific cases or controversial incidents
(ex: Rodney King beating in LA) can have
a short term affect on people ’s attitudes
toward police officers and police
departments.
12-15

16. Complex Dimensions of Trust and
Confidence in the Police





Priorities: Whether people feel that the police share their
concerns about the neighborhood
Competence: Whether people feel that the police have the
knowledge and skills to achieve their objectives
Dependability: Whether people feel that the police can be
counted on to fulfill their promises
Respect: Whether people feel that the police treat them with
respect
Theory of Procedural Justice: People distinguish between
the outcomes and the process
 Ex: People are more likely to be satisfied if the officer explains the
basis for his action, even if the outcome is unfavorable
12-16

17. Three Perspectives on Attitudes
Toward Police




The Police and the Larger Society
The Police and Other Occupations
The Police in Other Countries
Summary of attitudes:










Majority of Americans have positive attitude toward police
Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate police less favorably
African Americans and Hispanics generally give a favorable rating
Young people rate less favorably
Poor people, less educated people and crime victims rate less
favorably
People who view their neighborhood as safe view police favorably
Community policing has a positive effect on citizens’ attitudes
There are significant differences in attitudes among different cities
People make important distinctions regarding police actions
Attitudes toward police reflect attitudes toward society as a whole
12-17

18. Police Perceptions of Citizens
 Sources of Police Attitudes
 Selective Contact
• Officers do not have regular contact with a cross
section of the community
• Low-income and minorities have a disproportionate
level of contact with the police
 Selective Perception
• Officers are more likely to remember traumatic or
unpleasant events
• Officers tend to stereotype African Americans since
they tend to show the most hostility toward officers
12-18

19. Sources of Police-Community
Relations Problems

Question: How do we explain the apparent
contradiction between the generally favorable
ratings given the police by racial and ethnic minority
communities and the persistence of public conflict
between the police and these groups?

Answer: We must examine specific areas of
policing
 The level of police protection received by different
neighborhoods
 Police officer field practices
 Administrative practices
 Employment practices
12-19

20. Level of Police Protection

Too Much or Too Little Law Enforcement?
 African Americans have been victims of underenforcement of the law throughout time
 Four Systems of Justice in the South during
institutionalized segregation
1. Crimes by whites against whites handled as “normal”
crimes
2. Crimes by whites against African Americans rarely
prosecuted
3. Crimes by African Americans against whites received
harshest response
4. Crimes by African Americans against African Americans
were ignored
12-20

21. Level of Police Protection
Continued

Failures to enforce the law in minority communities
has typically involved crimes of vice (gambling,
prostitution, drugs)
 This under-enforcement breeds disrespect for the law
and police
 Exposes law-abiding citizens in minority neighborhoods
to criminal activities and lower the quality of life

Delay in Responding to Calls
 Studies found that patrol officers often deliberately
delayed responding to calls for service, especially
involving family disturbances
 Black citizens perceived greater delays than whites
12-21

22. Police Field Practices

Deadly Force
 Source of major conflict
between minorities and
police
 Changed significantly
over last 40 years
• Fleeing-felon rule
unconstitutional
• Trend toward defenseof-life standard
 Does current disparity
between African
Americans and whites
shot and killed by police
represent systematic
discrimination?

Use of Physical Force
 Public Brutality:
excessive use of physical
force by the police
 Most common complaint
by minorities
 Use of force continuum
 Police use force more
often against
• Criminal suspects
• Male suspects
• Black males
• Drunk and
antagonistic
• Physical resistance
12-22

23. Use of Physical Force


Fleeing-Felon Rule: Declared unconstitutional
by the Supreme Court in 1985 (Tennessee v.
Garner), allowed police the legal right to use
deadly force in apprehending a felon attempting
to escape.
Defense-of-Life Standard: States that police
officers are allowed to use deadly force only in
situations where their own lives or the life of
another person are in danger.
12-23

24. Situational Factors in the Use of
Force

Officers more likely to use force against:





Male suspects
African American males
Drunk citizens
Citizens who are antagonistic to the police
Geoffrey Alpert’s Force Factor Framework
 Examines police officer behavior in relationship to
the citizen’s actions
 If an officer used force where there was no
resistance or threat on part of the citizen, then the
force would be considered excessive
12-24

25. Use of Police Canine Units
 Being bitten by a police dog is a form
of
police use of force
 Minorities believe police dogs are used
more often against them, and that they are
bitten far more often than whites
12-25

26. Arrests


African Americans are arrested more often than
whites (relative to their numbers in the population)
Officers’ decision to arrest is based on situational
factors




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The strength of the evidence
The seriousness of the crime
The preference of the victim
The victim-suspect relationship
The demeanor of the suspect
• Extremely complex
• No studies which determines the extent to which demeanor is
provoked by officer actions
12-26

27. Field Interrogations and Searches

Field Interrogations: Involve a crime control
strategy of both identifying and apprehending
offenders, and sending a message of deterrence
to people on the street.
 Young racial and ethnic minority males regard this as
harassment
 The President’s Crime Commission found that field
interrogations were a “major cause of tensions
between the police and minority communities”
12-27

28. Being “Out of Place” and Getting
Stopped
 Experts believe that a certain amount of
racial profiling in traffic enforcement is the
result of a police officer deciding that an
African American or Hispanic driver is “out
of place” in a white neighborhood.
12-28

29. Discussion: Crime Fighting and
Stereotyping
 Stereotyping of citizens by gender, age,
and race is a problem deeply rooted in
policing
 Racial stereotyping can affect a police
officer’s likelihood of using deadly force
12-29

30. Other Police Field Practices
 Verbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic Slurs
 Language and Cultural Barriers
 Discrimination Involving Women, Gays,
Lesbians, and Transgendered People



“Driving While Female”
Abuse of sexual minorities
Bias against young African American women
12-30

31. Special Topic: Racial Profiling
 Racial profiling: the practice of police
officers stopping drivers because of their
race or ethnicity and not because of a
legitimate law violation.
 “Driving while black”
 “Driving while brown”
12-31

32. Traffic Enforcement Practices
 59% of all citizen-police contacts involve
traffic stops
 Data on traffic enforcement patterns
involve several different actions by police:
 Stopping a vehicle
 Resolving the stop through an arrest, citation,
warning, or no action
 Searching the vehicle, driver, and/or
passengers
12-32

33. Data on Traffic Enforcement
Patterns
 National data

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
Males more likely to be stopped than females
Young people more likely than older people
African Americans and Hispanics more likely to
be searched than whites
 State and local data
 Meehan and Ponder study found that African
Americans were more likely to be stopped and
queried in predominately white neighborhoods
 Location matters
12-33

34. Interpreting Traffic-Stop Data

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Benchmark for interpreting data was the
residential population
However, population data do not indicate who is
actually driving on the roads or who is violating
traffic law
Best method is the rolling survey technique
which utilizes direct observation
Another alternative is internal benchmarking (IB)
 Compares performance of individual officers with peer
officers
12-34

35. Explaining Disparities in Traffic
Enforcement
 “Officers act on the basis of prejudicial
attitudes”
 A Contextual Analysis:
 Racial profiling occurs in three different
contexts
1.
2.
3.
War on drugs
Citizens who are “out of place”
General crackdown on crime
12-35

36. Police Justifications for Racial and
Ethnic Disparities
 Major argument is that African Americans
and minorities are more likely to be
engaged in criminal activity
 Some argue this involves circular
reasoning
 Minorities stopped and arrested more than
whites producing higher arrest rates and thus,
justifying higher rates of stops and arrests.
12-36

37. The Legitimate Use of Race and
Ethnicity in Police Work
 Police officer cannot arrest a person solely
on the basis or race
 The police cannot use race or ethnicity
when it is one element in a general profile
of criminal suspects.
 The police may use race or ethnicity when
it is one element in the description of a
specific criminal suspect
12-37

38. Policies to Prevent Bias in Traffic
Enforcement
 Specific written policy prohibiting racial or
ethnic discrimination
 Improve police officer training
 Traffic-stop data collection and analysis
12-38

39. Can Policies Reduce Racial and
Ethnic Disparities?
 The U.S. Customs Service developed new
guidelines for searching foreigners
entering the country
 As a result, the no. of persons being searched
declined by 47%
 The percentage of people found with
contraband rose by 65%
 Racial and ethnic disparities in persons
searched also declined
12-39

40. Problem Solving on Racial Profiling
 Importance of developing community and
police partnerships on racial profiling:
 Partnerships foster trust
 Partnerships are a valuable avenue for twoway communication
 Partnerships can help police departments
reduce the risk of engaging in unacceptable
practices that might result in being sued
12-40

41. Improving Police-Community
Relations

Several different approaches:
 Maintaining a representative police force
• Eliminating employment discrimination
 Improving the handling of citizen complaints
• Civilian review boards
 Creating special police-community relations unit
• For recent immigrants: “newcomer,” “foreign born,” and “nonnatives”
 Improving training
• Assigning officers on the basis of race
12-41

42. Special Police-Community
Relations Unit
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PCR Units operate programs designed to
improve relations with minority communities
Ride-along programs: allow citizens to spend a
few hours riding in a patrol car
Creation of neighborhood storefront offices to
overcome isolation of the police
Special PCR programs tend to be more
successfully with groups of people who already
have favorable attitudes toward the police
 Whites, homeowners, older people
12-42

43. Outreach to Immigrant
Communities
 The new variety of languages and cultures
in American cities presents new issues for
police departments
 Police departments developing new outreach
programs designed to help establish closer
relations with the police and new immigrant
communities
 Largest number of programs are targeted
toward Hispanic/Latino communities
12-43

44. Should Local Police Enforce
Federal Immigration?
 Many local police officials do not want to
be involved in enforcing immigration laws
because they argue that policing requires
them to develop close relations with the
communities they serve
 The role of immigration enforcement might
alienate them from communities with large
numbers of immigrants
 People will become reluctant to call the police
to report crimes, etc.
12-44

45. Race Relations and Human
Relations Training


No research has established a direct connection
between race relations training and improved
police officer behavior or improve public
attitudes
Experts question the value of classroom training
 On-the-street behavior and communication may be
more effective

Training in Cultural Competence
 Information may help explain cultural differences that
may lead to misunderstandings
12-45

46. From PCR to Legitimacy: The New
Paradigm


Legitimacy: the belief that the police as a social
institution are acting properly and effectively,
and deserve public supports
Winning legitimacy is 2-dimensional
 First dimension: involves substantive outcomes:
controlling crime and disorder and providing services
to the public
 Second dimension: involves how police do their job:
treating all people with respect, not engaging in
misconduct or use of excessive force

Key difference between PCR and Legitimacy
 PCR programs are directed only toward one part of
the community
12-46

47. Community Policing and Improving
PCR
 Community policing represents a
comprehensive philosophy of policing and
may better address on-the-street police
behavior than traditional PCR programs
 Community policing is directed toward the
community as a whole, and not just racial
and ethnic minority communities
12-47