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Designing from Theory

    Social Media – Dr. Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Communications and New Media, National University of Singapore
Introduction

   We talked last week about cooperation, public goods, and possible
    solutions for the ‘social fence’ and ‘social trap’ problems
   Now it is time to focus more on ‘social fence’-type problems, i.e. how to
    motivate contributions to a community, and specifically examine what could
    work well in an online setting
   We will assume here the perspective of a community manager and designer,
    i.e. someone who has the power to change how an online community
    functions with specific interventions that may have the desired effects, but
    sometimes may also backfire
   We will also introduce more concepts from social psychology, which will
    provide a complementary perspective to that of last week’s readings
   Finally we will ask whether it is possible to design online communities by
    mining social science theory, and where design becomes more art than
    science


    2                CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
The truth about participation (1 of 2)
   The age of web 2.0 has been heralded as
    an aged of increased civic participation




                                                                     contributions
                                                                                                steep decline
   But many studies have confirmed that it is
    only a small fraction of online users that
    are active contributors
   Because online resources are generally
                                                                                                    short tail
    non-depletable, free-riding is in most cases
    not so much of a problem; also, the
    existence of a more passive ‘audience’ can                                                                   members
    be a motivator for those who actually
                                                                                     10%                  90%
    contribute
   But many online communities do suffer                                      Online communities depend on a small
    from lacking a critical mass of active                                     number of top contributors (10% of
                                                                               member base or less). If they leave, a
    participants, so we need to ask how we                                     community can fall apart. Most members
    can increase motivations to contribute                                     will contribute very little or nothing at all.


    3                   CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
   First we need to list again the reasons why people contribute,
        also taking into account factors that could inhibit contribution,
        even when the desire to cooperate is present


       Then we can ask how to reinforce cooperative behavior and
        grow the number of valuable contributions




4                CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
What drives people to contribute to team efforts?




      The following diagrams are based on the lit. review and findings in Ling et al, 2005 and Tedjamulia et al, 2005…

  5                         CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Personal motivators                                                                       ILLUSTRATIVE ONLY AND LIKELY
                                                                                              INCOMPLETE IN PARTS


If we attempt to synthesize the connections between various motivators as                                     Design levers
discussed in the literature, we may come up with a diagram as below…
(see also following pages)




        Need to                    Goal                          Learning
        achieve                  difficulty                   (private reward)




                                                               Self-efficacy                       Contribution

     Enjoyment
        (intrinsic)

                                                                              Individual
                                                    Uniqueness
                                                                                 goal

 Note: every such attempt will be incomplete, but can be helpful in thinking about
 interactions between motivations and how they may jointly lead to contributions
    6                        CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Environmental motivators
                                                                                                 ILLUSTRATIVE ONLY AND LIKELY
                                                                                                     INCOMPLETE IN PARTS


                                                                                                                     Design levers
Common
                                                           Trust in group
 bond

Common                     Attachment                                                               Usability
 identity                   to group*

 Group
  size                                      Group goal
                                                                                                                Contribution

         Relative
                                           Importance
       contribution
          value                              of goal
                                                                                    Personal                       Goal
                                                                                  Responsibility                commitment
                                              Visibility
       Uniqueness                          (identifiability)

*A ‘group’ here can refer to the entire community or a subgroup that a user selects or is assigned to

  7                                CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Reinforcers                                                                                Design levers




   Social       Demonstrating public recognition for individual or group efforts, listing
recognition     top contributors, providing commendations or compliments, etc.


                Providing feedback on an individual’s performance, as compared to an
Performance
                individual or group target or to the performance of others in the
  appraisal
                community


                Providing financial incentives, e.g., monetary prizes, often in the context of
 Financial
                contests where the best entries are eligible for a prize.
 rewards
                Caveat: such rewards can have a negative impact on intrinsic motivation and cooperation.


                Providing in-kind rewards, such as items that will be useful to
      In kind   community members in producing higher quality content in the future
     rewards    (e.g., hardware or software).
                Note: may be more acceptable to community (less divisive) than financial rewards.



 8                  CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Practical advice on reinforcers

   Reinforcers must be meaningful to members and fair, i.e. applied in
    proportion to a member’s contribution
   The sources of the reinforcement should be credible in the eyes of the
    community (i.e. community manager, peers, senior members, or outside
    parties that are respected by the community)
   Reinforcers must be salient, i.e. clearly visible, transparent and recognizable
    (e.g., badges that users can attach to their profiles, prizes awarded
    according to well-defined criteria and announced publicly, etc.)
   Reinforcers should be applied shortly after a contribution is made, in order
    to be more effective. Also, their application should be relatively infrequent
    and in any case should not be allowed to dominate over intrinsic
    motivations to contribute



    9                 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Goals (1 of 2)                                                                                    Design levers



                  Individual commitment to a group goal will generally depend on the individual’s
 Group goal       commitment/attachment to the group, and the perceived relative importance of
                  his/her contribution

                  Individual goals may be more effective than group goals, as social loafing theory would
                  predict that individual goals would lead to greater commitment and satisfaction upon
Individual goal   completion; however, empirical testing in online communities did not find support for
                  this hypothesis

                  Setting more challenging (individual or group) goals leads to greater motivation and
                  satisfaction upon completion. It probably also leads to greater learning, which can also
Goal difficulty
                  be a motivator for the provision of public goods according to the private-collective
                  model. But too high a goal may have the opposite effect

                  An individual’s commitment to a given goal may not be fully revealed and is not
   Goal           entirely controllable in any case. But asking for individuals to publicly commit to (self-
commitment        selected or assigned) tasks could increase their motivation to complete them.

                  The more an individual perceives him/herself as someone with unique skills,
                  personality or other characteristics that may be valued by a community, the more
 Uniqueness
                  he/she will be motivated to contribute towards a common goal. This likely also
                  increases the sense of self-efficacy in achieving any goal (group or individual).
   10                  CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Goals (2 of 2)                                                                               Design levers




               Making individual contributions visible to the entire community (with every group or
               individual achievement being traceable back to an identifiable member) boosts
  Visibility
               motivations to contribute and goal commitment. It is also a facilitator of social
               recognition for one’s efforts.


               When one knows that one’s contribution to a group goal is measurable and essential,
  Relative     one is more motivated to contribute. Contribution value can be artificially boosted,
contribution   e.g., in funding campaigns, when a donor pledges to double the amount of money
   value       donated by individuals towards a cause. Best is when the contribution is meaningful to
               both the individual and the group.


               The more an individual perceives him/herself as someone with unique skills,
               personality or other characteristics that may be valued by a community, the more
Uniqueness     he/she will be motivated to contribute towards a common goal. This likely also
               increases the sense of self-efficacy in achieving any goal (group or individual).
               Reinforcing a sense of uniqueness is also a way of boosting individual perceptions of
               the relative value of a contribution to a group, without having to increase the size or
               difficulty of the contribution.


  11               CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
The truth about participation (2 of 2)
   The ability of online communities to
    break across organizational
    boundaries and tap into diverse talent
    as well as find motivated contributors
    wherever they may be is considered
    one of their greatest strengths
   But people’s limited attention spans
    and changing priorities (with low
    commitment to individual
    communities and tasks) can be the
    greatest challenge
   It is essential then that communities
    cultivate member bonds and a sense
    of common identity so as to retain
    top contributors, as well as take in
    new members to make up for
    attrition!
    12                  CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Groups, bonds and common identity
 The distinction between identity and bond refers to people’s different reasons
 for being in a group, that is because they like the group as a whole – identity-
 based attachment, or because they like the group as a whole – bond-based
 attachment (Back1951, via Ren et al 2007)

                              Common bond                                         Common identity


                     Tendency for smaller group                            Easier to maintain larger groups,
  Group size
                     formation and cliques                                 more open

                     less resistant to attrition (loyalty                  more resistant; group identity
      Cohesion       with people, not group) and less                      matters more than individual
                     welcoming to newcomers                                members; newcomers welcome

                     off-topic discussions                                 discussions on topic, public;
Communication
                     and group/one-on-one                                  off-topic may be banned
 and content
                     communication

 13                 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Detailed view of group attachment




                                                                                                                            Source: Ren et al, 2007

                                                         design levers*
* Members may in time develop more bond-based or identity-based attachment, depending on the types of interactions, policies and roles in the community

      14                               CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
More thoughts on design… (1 of 2)

What kind of community are you trying to build and how
can you build identity-based and bond-based attachment?

Should you allow for off-topic discussions?

How much information should users be encouraged to
disclose about themselves?

How large do you want the community to become
(remember, larger is not always better, but providing for the
formation of subgroups can help make it more manageable)
                                                                                            Think about online
Which reinforcers would be more suitable for this                                        platforms you know and
community? Consider applicability and appeal to users.                                   why some people make
                                                                                        contributions. How would
How can you make contribution easier and thus more                                          you increase their
appealing? Some users may want to contribute in small ways                              motivation to contribute?
while others may seek greater challenges.

 15                     CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
More thoughts on design… (2 of 2)
Is social science a useful source of inspiration and
guidance for the design of online platforms? YES!

Can this make design an exact science with provably
desirable outcomes? NO (this is anyway not the intent of
most of social science, and even if it were, translating
general findings into design guidelines is not
straightforward)

What makes this so difficult? It is mainly because any design
intervention can have multiple effects, which can cancel each
other out and even undermine the intentions of the designer                                Social science helps us
                                                                                          understand how people
Is design then doomed to be equal parts art and ‘engineering’                            operate in social settings.
rather than science? PROBABLY                                                             This is valuable for the
                                                                                        analysis and design of social
Does this mean that the best approach is to learn by trial-and-                           media, but there are no
error? NO (insights from social science can be useful guides,                             surefire, one-size-fits-all
and help us understand cause and effect)                                                    recipes for success

 16                      CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
Credits and licensing
   Front page photo by celinecelines (license: CC BY-NC-ND)
   Team with laptops photo by friendly_terrorist (license: CC BY-NC-ND)
   Music instruments photo by brad montgomery (license: CC BY)
   Football photo by left-hand (license: CC BY)
   Flash mob pillow fight photo by mattw1s0n (license: CC BY)
   Phone receiver photo by bondidwhat (license: CC BY-NC-ND)




         Original content in this presentation is licensed under the Creative Commons
             Singapore Attribution 3.0 license unless stated otherwise (see above)




    17                       CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)

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Designing From Theory

  • 1. Designing from Theory Social Media – Dr. Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg) Communications and New Media, National University of Singapore
  • 2. Introduction  We talked last week about cooperation, public goods, and possible solutions for the ‘social fence’ and ‘social trap’ problems  Now it is time to focus more on ‘social fence’-type problems, i.e. how to motivate contributions to a community, and specifically examine what could work well in an online setting  We will assume here the perspective of a community manager and designer, i.e. someone who has the power to change how an online community functions with specific interventions that may have the desired effects, but sometimes may also backfire  We will also introduce more concepts from social psychology, which will provide a complementary perspective to that of last week’s readings  Finally we will ask whether it is possible to design online communities by mining social science theory, and where design becomes more art than science 2 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 3. The truth about participation (1 of 2)  The age of web 2.0 has been heralded as an aged of increased civic participation contributions steep decline  But many studies have confirmed that it is only a small fraction of online users that are active contributors  Because online resources are generally short tail non-depletable, free-riding is in most cases not so much of a problem; also, the existence of a more passive ‘audience’ can members be a motivator for those who actually 10% 90% contribute  But many online communities do suffer Online communities depend on a small from lacking a critical mass of active number of top contributors (10% of member base or less). If they leave, a participants, so we need to ask how we community can fall apart. Most members can increase motivations to contribute will contribute very little or nothing at all. 3 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 4. First we need to list again the reasons why people contribute, also taking into account factors that could inhibit contribution, even when the desire to cooperate is present  Then we can ask how to reinforce cooperative behavior and grow the number of valuable contributions 4 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 5. What drives people to contribute to team efforts? The following diagrams are based on the lit. review and findings in Ling et al, 2005 and Tedjamulia et al, 2005… 5 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 6. Personal motivators ILLUSTRATIVE ONLY AND LIKELY INCOMPLETE IN PARTS If we attempt to synthesize the connections between various motivators as Design levers discussed in the literature, we may come up with a diagram as below… (see also following pages) Need to Goal Learning achieve difficulty (private reward) Self-efficacy Contribution Enjoyment (intrinsic) Individual Uniqueness goal Note: every such attempt will be incomplete, but can be helpful in thinking about interactions between motivations and how they may jointly lead to contributions 6 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 7. Environmental motivators ILLUSTRATIVE ONLY AND LIKELY INCOMPLETE IN PARTS Design levers Common Trust in group bond Common Attachment Usability identity to group* Group size Group goal Contribution Relative Importance contribution value of goal Personal Goal Responsibility commitment Visibility Uniqueness (identifiability) *A ‘group’ here can refer to the entire community or a subgroup that a user selects or is assigned to 7 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 8. Reinforcers Design levers Social Demonstrating public recognition for individual or group efforts, listing recognition top contributors, providing commendations or compliments, etc. Providing feedback on an individual’s performance, as compared to an Performance individual or group target or to the performance of others in the appraisal community Providing financial incentives, e.g., monetary prizes, often in the context of Financial contests where the best entries are eligible for a prize. rewards Caveat: such rewards can have a negative impact on intrinsic motivation and cooperation. Providing in-kind rewards, such as items that will be useful to In kind community members in producing higher quality content in the future rewards (e.g., hardware or software). Note: may be more acceptable to community (less divisive) than financial rewards. 8 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 9. Practical advice on reinforcers  Reinforcers must be meaningful to members and fair, i.e. applied in proportion to a member’s contribution  The sources of the reinforcement should be credible in the eyes of the community (i.e. community manager, peers, senior members, or outside parties that are respected by the community)  Reinforcers must be salient, i.e. clearly visible, transparent and recognizable (e.g., badges that users can attach to their profiles, prizes awarded according to well-defined criteria and announced publicly, etc.)  Reinforcers should be applied shortly after a contribution is made, in order to be more effective. Also, their application should be relatively infrequent and in any case should not be allowed to dominate over intrinsic motivations to contribute 9 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 10. Goals (1 of 2) Design levers Individual commitment to a group goal will generally depend on the individual’s Group goal commitment/attachment to the group, and the perceived relative importance of his/her contribution Individual goals may be more effective than group goals, as social loafing theory would predict that individual goals would lead to greater commitment and satisfaction upon Individual goal completion; however, empirical testing in online communities did not find support for this hypothesis Setting more challenging (individual or group) goals leads to greater motivation and satisfaction upon completion. It probably also leads to greater learning, which can also Goal difficulty be a motivator for the provision of public goods according to the private-collective model. But too high a goal may have the opposite effect An individual’s commitment to a given goal may not be fully revealed and is not Goal entirely controllable in any case. But asking for individuals to publicly commit to (self- commitment selected or assigned) tasks could increase their motivation to complete them. The more an individual perceives him/herself as someone with unique skills, personality or other characteristics that may be valued by a community, the more Uniqueness he/she will be motivated to contribute towards a common goal. This likely also increases the sense of self-efficacy in achieving any goal (group or individual). 10 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 11. Goals (2 of 2) Design levers Making individual contributions visible to the entire community (with every group or individual achievement being traceable back to an identifiable member) boosts Visibility motivations to contribute and goal commitment. It is also a facilitator of social recognition for one’s efforts. When one knows that one’s contribution to a group goal is measurable and essential, Relative one is more motivated to contribute. Contribution value can be artificially boosted, contribution e.g., in funding campaigns, when a donor pledges to double the amount of money value donated by individuals towards a cause. Best is when the contribution is meaningful to both the individual and the group. The more an individual perceives him/herself as someone with unique skills, personality or other characteristics that may be valued by a community, the more Uniqueness he/she will be motivated to contribute towards a common goal. This likely also increases the sense of self-efficacy in achieving any goal (group or individual). Reinforcing a sense of uniqueness is also a way of boosting individual perceptions of the relative value of a contribution to a group, without having to increase the size or difficulty of the contribution. 11 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 12. The truth about participation (2 of 2)  The ability of online communities to break across organizational boundaries and tap into diverse talent as well as find motivated contributors wherever they may be is considered one of their greatest strengths  But people’s limited attention spans and changing priorities (with low commitment to individual communities and tasks) can be the greatest challenge  It is essential then that communities cultivate member bonds and a sense of common identity so as to retain top contributors, as well as take in new members to make up for attrition! 12 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 13. Groups, bonds and common identity The distinction between identity and bond refers to people’s different reasons for being in a group, that is because they like the group as a whole – identity- based attachment, or because they like the group as a whole – bond-based attachment (Back1951, via Ren et al 2007) Common bond Common identity Tendency for smaller group Easier to maintain larger groups, Group size formation and cliques more open less resistant to attrition (loyalty more resistant; group identity Cohesion with people, not group) and less matters more than individual welcoming to newcomers members; newcomers welcome off-topic discussions discussions on topic, public; Communication and group/one-on-one off-topic may be banned and content communication 13 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 14. Detailed view of group attachment Source: Ren et al, 2007 design levers* * Members may in time develop more bond-based or identity-based attachment, depending on the types of interactions, policies and roles in the community 14 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 15. More thoughts on design… (1 of 2) What kind of community are you trying to build and how can you build identity-based and bond-based attachment? Should you allow for off-topic discussions? How much information should users be encouraged to disclose about themselves? How large do you want the community to become (remember, larger is not always better, but providing for the formation of subgroups can help make it more manageable) Think about online Which reinforcers would be more suitable for this platforms you know and community? Consider applicability and appeal to users. why some people make contributions. How would How can you make contribution easier and thus more you increase their appealing? Some users may want to contribute in small ways motivation to contribute? while others may seek greater challenges. 15 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 16. More thoughts on design… (2 of 2) Is social science a useful source of inspiration and guidance for the design of online platforms? YES! Can this make design an exact science with provably desirable outcomes? NO (this is anyway not the intent of most of social science, and even if it were, translating general findings into design guidelines is not straightforward) What makes this so difficult? It is mainly because any design intervention can have multiple effects, which can cancel each other out and even undermine the intentions of the designer Social science helps us understand how people Is design then doomed to be equal parts art and ‘engineering’ operate in social settings. rather than science? PROBABLY This is valuable for the analysis and design of social Does this mean that the best approach is to learn by trial-and- media, but there are no error? NO (insights from social science can be useful guides, surefire, one-size-fits-all and help us understand cause and effect) recipes for success 16 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)
  • 17. Credits and licensing  Front page photo by celinecelines (license: CC BY-NC-ND)  Team with laptops photo by friendly_terrorist (license: CC BY-NC-ND)  Music instruments photo by brad montgomery (license: CC BY)  Football photo by left-hand (license: CC BY)  Flash mob pillow fight photo by mattw1s0n (license: CC BY)  Phone receiver photo by bondidwhat (license: CC BY-NC-ND) Original content in this presentation is licensed under the Creative Commons Singapore Attribution 3.0 license unless stated otherwise (see above) 17 CNM Social Media Module – Giorgos Cheliotis (gcheliotis@nus.edu.sg)