1. PROTEIN AND
PEPTIDE DRUG
DELIVERY SYSTEMS

2. 2 INTRODUCTION
 Proteins are the most abundant macromolecules
in the living cells, occurring in all cells and all parts
of cells.
 Cells can produce proteins that have strikingly
different properties and activities, by joining same
20 amino acids in many different combinations and
sequences.
 The term protein is used for molecules composed
of over 50 amino acids, and peptide for molecules
composed of less than 50 amino acids.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

3. 3
 Scientific advances in molecular and cell biology have
resulted in the development of two new biotechnologies.
The first utilizes RECOMBINANT DNA to produce protein
products.
 The second technology is HYBRIDOMA TECHNOLOGY.
Various proteins and peptides drugs are epidermal
growth factor, tissue plasminogen activator.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

4. 4 PROTEIN AND PEPTIDE DRUGS
 Management of illness through medication is
entering a new era in which a growing number of
biotechnology produced peptide and protein drugs
are available for therapeutic use.
 Ailments that can be treated effectively by this new
class of therapeutic agents include cancers, memory
impairment, mental disorders, hypertension.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

5. 5
MARKETED PROTEINS IN FREEZE DRIED
FORMULATIONS
Product Formulation Route Indication
Metrodin FSH 75 IU i.m. Induction of
ovulation
Pergonal FSH and LH i.m. infertility
Profasi HCG i.m. Infertility
Elspar Asparginase i.m. i.v. Leukemia
Glucagon Glucagon i.m. i.v. s.c. Hypoglycemia
Acthar Corticotropin i.m. i.v. s.c. Hormone
Deficiency
BY VISHAL SHARMA

6. 6
MARKETED PEPTIDES IN READY TO USE
FORMULATIONS
Product Formulation Route Indication
Pitressin 8-Arginine i.m. s.c. Post operative
Vasopressin abdominal
distension
Lupron Leuprolide s.c. Prostatic cancer
Syntocinon Oxytocin i.m. i.v. Labour
induction
Sandostatin Octreotide s.c. Intestinal
tumour
Calcimar Salmon s.c. hypercalcemia
BY VISHAL calcitonin
SHARMA

7. 7
SUSTAINED RELEASE
DOSAGE FORMS
Product Formulation Route Indication
Lupron Leuprolide i.m. Prostatic
cancer
H.P.Acthar gel ACTH i.m. s.c. Antidiureti
c
Pitrressin tannate Vasopressin i.m. Endocrine
in oil tannate cancer
BY VISHAL SHARMA

8. 8 PROTEIN AND PEPTIDE DRUGS
 They are therapeutically effective only by
parenteral route.
 Repeated injections are required.
 Therapeutic applications of these drugs rely on
successful development of viable delivery systems
to improve their stability and bioavailability.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

9. 9 APPROACHES
BY VISHAL SHARMA

10. 10
NON PARENTERAL SYSTEMIC
DELIVERY / NON INVASIVE
 These routes are useful for long term therapy.
 Higher patience compliance (oral)
 Reduction in administration cost
 Without permeation enhancers lower bioavailability
is achieved when these routes are used.
 Lower bioavailability is due to poor mucosal
permeability.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

11. 11 IT INVOLVES
 Oral route
 Transdermal route
 Nasal
 Pulmonary
 Rectal
 Vaginal
BY VISHAL SHARMA

12. 12 CHALLENGES
 Large molecular size
 Susceptibility to enz. Degradation
 Short plasma half life
 Ion permeability
 Immunogenicity
 Aggregation
 Denaturation etc
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13. 13
ABSORPTION OF PROTIENS
FOLLOW
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14. 14 ABSORPTION MECHANISM
 90% of nutrient absorb in small intestine.
 P & P absorption is limited by acidic
environment , action of enz. ,non absorptive
nature of epithelial.
 Through paracellular and transcellular mech.
They absorbed into blood or lymph (in villi)
BY VISHAL SHARMA

15. DEVELOPMENT OF DELIVERY
SYSTEMS FOR PEPTIDE AND
15
PROTEIN BASED
PHARMACEUTICALS
Considerations are to be given for following
aspects :
 barriers to oral absorption
 Preformulation and Formulation
considerations
 Pharmacokinetic considerations
 Analytical considerations
 Regulatory considerations
BY VISHAL SHARMA

16. DEVELOPMENT OF DELIVERY
16 SYSTEMS FOR PEPTIDE AND
PROTEIN BASED
PHARMACEUTICALS
Considerations are to be given for following
aspects :
 barriers to oral absorption
 Preformulation and Formulation
considerations
 Pharmacokinetic considerations
 Analytical considerations
 Regulatory considerations
BY VISHAL SHARMA

17. 17 BARRIERS TO ORAL ABSORPTION
 Age related development of macromolecule permeability
barrier
 Physical barrier - Size , charge ,solubility
 Chemical barriers- pH solubility profile
 Enz. Barriers
 Interplay b/w P-glycoprotien & CYP3A4
BY VISHAL SHARMA

18. AGE RELATED DEVELOPMENT OF
MACROMOLECULE PERMEABILITY
18
BARRIER
 It was found out that permeability of the
neonates intestine is good for the
macromolecules and as the age increases the
permeability was reduce for macro. Mol. & inc
for small molecules.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

19. 19 PHYSICAL BARRIER
 Size ,charge and solubility is in our hand to change by
formulation and chemistry change.
 For ex. Sustained release human insulin by attaching
with lipophilic molecule.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

20. 20
Surface adsorption :
 Glass and plastic surfaces adsorbs proteins and
peptides.
 To avoid surface adsorption albumin, gelatin, sodium
chloride can be used.
Aggregation behaviour :
 To prevent aggregation additives are used such as :
urea, glycerol, EDTA, lysine, poloxamer 188.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

21. 21 CHEMICAL BARRIERS
pH :
 Solution pH is important for stability
purpose. For simple peptides pH of minimum
degradation should be identified. Peptides
are usually formulated at slightly acidic pH
(3-5). For proteins pH is set away from
isoelectric pH to avoid aggregation.
 Insulin is more stable at pH 5.4. However for
solubility reasons insulin injection pH are
2.5-3.5 or 7-7.8.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

22. 22
ENZ. BARRIERS/PROTEIN
INSTABILITIES
 The degradation of proteins and peptides can
be divided into two main categories :
1. Those that involve a covalent bond.
2. Those involving a conformational change. This
process is often referred to as denaturation.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

23. 23 PEPTIDE FRAGMENTATION
 The peptide bond (RNH-CO-R) is succeptible to
hydrolysis.
 Peptide bonds are considered stable unless hydrolysis
is assisted by neighbouring group. Hydrolysis rate is
affected by solution pH.
DEAMIDATION
 It means removal of ammonia from amide moiety.
Deamidation is the major factor for instability of insulin,
ACTH, Human Growth Hormone. In acidic media
peptides deamidate by direct hydrolysis.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

24. 24
OXIDATION
Sulphur containing amino acids are prone to oxidation.
MAILLARD REACTION
In the maillard reaction the carbonyl group (RCH=O) from
glucose can react with the free amino group in a pepide to
form a Schiff base. This reaction is acid catalysed.
DIMERISATION AND POLYMERIZATION
Insulin forms a small amount (about 1%) of covalent
dimer and polymer during two years cold storage.
Production of these species increases as temperature
increases.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

25. 25 ENZYMES
BY VISHAL SHARMA

26. 26
PROTEASE INHIBITORS
 Coadministration of protease inhibitors provides a
viable means to circumvent the enzymatic barrier in
achieving the delivery of peptide and protein drugs.
 Th e choice of protease inhibitors will depend on the
structure of these therapeutic drugs, and the
information on the specifi city of proteases is essential
to guarantee the stability of the drugs in the GI tract.
 A number of inhibitors including aprotinin (trypsin
/chymotrypsin inhibitor), amastatin, bestatin,
boroleucine, and puromycin (aminopeptidase
inhibitors) have been reported for this purpose
BY VISHAL SHARMA

27. 27
INTERPLAY B/W P-
GLYCOPROTIEN AND CYP3A4
 P-gp is ABC transporter associated with MDR
 CYP3A4 are enz.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

28. 28
BY VISHAL SHARMA

29. 29 PERMEATION ENHANCER
 Without permeation enhancers lower
bioavailability is achieved when these routes are
used.
 Lower bioavailability is due to poor mucosal
permeability.
 Sodium tauroglycocholate is commonly used
penetration enhancer.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

30. DEVELOPMENT OF DELIVERY
30 SYSTEMS FOR PEPTIDE AND
PROTEIN BASED
PHARMACEUTICALS
Considerations are to be given for following
aspects :
 barriers to oral absorption
 Preformulation and Formulation
considerations
 Pharmacokinetic considerations
 Analytical considerations
 Regulatory considerations
BY VISHAL SHARMA

31. PREFORMULATION AND
31 FORMULATION
CONSIDERATIONS
 Denaturation stabilizers
 Maximising oral protein and peptide absorption
 Chemical Modifications
 Amino acid Modification
 Hydrophobization
 Conjugation with polymers
BY VISHAL SHARMA

32. 32
DENATURATION
o Specific confirmation is required for proteins to exert
pharmacological and physiological activities.
Denaturation is a process of altering protein
confirmation. Heat, organic solvents, high salt
concentration, lyophilization can denature proteins.
 Protein confirmation refers to the specific tertiary
structure, which is determined by the primary and
secondary structures and the disulfide bonds and is held
together by three forces : hydrogen bonding, salt
bridges, and hydrophobic interactions.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

33. 33 COMMON STABILIZERS
SERUM ALBUMIN :
 It can withstand heating to 60o C for 10 hours.
 At pH 2 albumin molecule expands and elongates but
can return to native confirmation reversibly. Also, it
shows good solubility.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

34. 34
AMINO ACIDS
Glycine is most commonly used stabilizer.
 Mechanism of action of amino acids as stabilizers may
be one of the following :
 Reduce surface adsorption.
 Inhibit aggregate formation.
 Stabilize proteins against heat denaturation.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

35. 35
SURFACTANTS
 They cause denaturation of proteins by hydrophobic
disruption. However judicious use of surfactants can
protect proteins from other denaturants. Proteins have
tendency to concentrate at liquid/liquid or liquid/air
interface. Due to this proteins may adopt non native
confirmation and such confirmation is having less
solubility.
 Optimal concentration of surfactants for stabilization
should be greater than cmc. Ionic surfactants are more
effective stabilizers than non ionic surfactants.
 Various surfactants used are : poloxamer 188,
polysorbate.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

36. 36
POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS AND
CARBOHYDRATES :
 They contain –CHOH-CHOH- groups which are
responsible for stabilizing proteins. They stabilize
proteins against denaturation caused by elevated
temperature or by freeze drying or by freeze thaw
cycles.
 Many important therapeutic proteins and peptides are
derived from blood such as immune globulin,
coagulation factors. For viral destruction
pasteurization at 60o C for 10 hours is needed. Hence
thermal stability is needed. Long chain polyhydric
alcohols are more effective as stabilizers. e.g. sorbitol,
xylitol.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

37. 37
 Mechanism of action as stabilizers for polyhydric
alcohols is that they have effect on structure of
surrounding water molecules which strengthens
hydrophobic interactions in protein molecules.
 Mechanism of action as stabilizers for carbohydrates is
that they provide dry network that provides significant
support for protection.
 Polyhydric alcohols used are sorbitol, mannitol, glycerol,
PEG.
 Carbohydrates used are glucose, mannose, sucrose,
ribose.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

38. 38
ANTI-OXIDANTS
Thiol compounds such as thioacetic acid, triethanolamine, reduced
glutathione and metal chelants such as EDTA are used as
antioxidants.
MISCELLANEOUS
 Certain enzymes can be stabilized by using compounds having
similar structures of enzymes. e.g. Glucose stabilizes
glucoamylase while aspargine stabilizes asparginase.
 Compounds forming stable complex through ionic interaction
with proteins can stabilize proteins.
 Calcium is essential for thermal stability of certain amylases or
proteases. SHARMA
BY VISHAL

39. MAXIMISING ORAL PROTEIN
39 AND PEPTIDE ABSORPTION
 1. Amino acid modifications
Metkephamid, an analog of methionine
enkephalinwith substitution of glycine₂ by l-
alanine and modified methionine, readily
penetrated across the nasal mucosa with 54%
bioavailability relative to subcutaneous
administration but was orally inactive.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

40. 40
2. Hydrophobization
 Hydrophobization of peptides may be attempted by
two approaches. The first ispeptide backbone
modification to include more of hydrophobic amino
acids; the second would be covalent conjugation of a
hydrophobic moiety—for example, a lipid
orpolymeric tail.
 Increasing the hydrophobicity of a peptide or protein by
surface modification using lipophilic moieties may be of
particular benefit to transcellular passive or active
absorption by membrane penetration or attachment,
respectively; or it may simply aid in the increased
stability of the protein.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

41. 41
 EXAMPLE
 lipophilic modificationof TRH by covalent
conjugation of lauric acid to this tripeptide (Lau-
TRH). The derivative was more stable in rat
plasma and was rapidly converted to TRH in the
intestinal mucosal homogenate.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

42. 42 CONJUGATION WITH POLYMER
 One of the most commenly used technique is
(PEG)-ylation technology.
 Enlarges the active molecule by attaching a
web like shield of hydrated PEG polymer chain
around the molecule.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

43. 43
BENEFITS
 increase clearance half life
 Provide possibility of drug to stay more in the
circulation.
 Increase molecular stability
 Change the vol. of distribution
 Reduce immune response
BY VISHAL SHARMA

44. DEVELOPMENT OF DELIVERY
44 SYSTEMS FOR PEPTIDE AND
PROTEIN BASED
PHARMACEUTICALS
Considerations are to be given for following
aspects :
 barriers to oral absorption
 Preformulation and Formulation
considerations
 Pharmacokinetic considerations
 Analytical considerations
 Regulatory considerations
BY VISHAL SHARMA

45. 45
PHARMACOKINETIC
CONSIDERATIONS
 Basal insulin secretion in healthy subjects
shows circadian rhythm with peak time at
15:00 hrs.
 It has been suggested that larger amount of
insulin is needed in afternoon and night.
 Hence delivery systems could be designed by
considering such aspects.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

46. DEVELOPMENT OF DELIVERY
46 SYSTEMS FOR PEPTIDE AND
PROTEIN BASED
PHARMACEUTICALS
Considerations are to be given for following
aspects :
 barriers to oral absorption
 Preformulation and Formulation
considerations
 Pharmacokinetic considerations
 Analytical considerations
 Regulatory considerations
BY VISHAL SHARMA

47. 47 ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Many tests are required for stability of protein
products to assure identity, purity, potency and
stability of formulation.
 Due to complexity of proteins bioassay are
required to assess potency of the formulation.
Bioassay are of two types : in vitro and in vivo.
 In case of in vitro bioassays response of cells to
hormones and growth factors is monitored. In case
of in vivo bioassay pharmacological response of
animals to proteins is monitored : e.g., post
injection blood sugar in rabbits is monitored for
bioassay of insulin.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

48. 48 U.V. SPECTROSCOPY
 Proteins containing aromatic amino acid residues
such as phenyl alanine, tyrosine, tryptophan can be
detected by u.v. spectroscopy.
 Ultraviolet spectroscopy can be used for in process
quality control.
 Protein aggregates scatter u.v. light and absorbance
increases. Hence u.v. spectroscopy can be used to
monitor protein aggregation.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

49. 49
BRADFORD ASSAY :
 This assay employs the principle that in the presence of
proteins absorption maximum of coomassie brilliant blue dye
changes from 465nm to 595nm.
BIURET TEST :
 Structure of biuret and proteins are similar. Biuret in presence
of proteins or peptides reduces copper to cuprous ions in
alkaline solutions and colour complex is developed.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

50. 50 THERMAL ANALYSIS
 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is
gaining widespread use as a tool for
investigating transitions of confirmation as a
function of temperature and, more
importantly, the effect of potential stabilizing
excipients in a protein solution. The apex of
the endothermic peak is the transition
temperature between native and partially
unfolded confirmations.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

51. 51 ELECTROPHORESIS
 Most often used technique for protein products is
sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE).
 Proteins are denatured by boiling in the SDS solution.
All charges of protein are masked by negative charge
of dodecyl sulphate.
 Thus protein moves on polyacrylamide gel strictly on
basis of size of protein molecule.
 This technique is useful for determining molecular
weight of proteins.
 For visualization of proteins on the gel reagents used
areBYsilver nitrate, coomassie brilliant blue dye.
VISHAL SHARMA

52. 52
LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
To study stability of proteins and peptides HPLC
is useful technique. Various modes used are
 Normal Phase HPLC
 Reverse Phase HPLC
 Ion Exchange
 Chromatofocusing
BY VISHAL SHARMA

53. DEVELOPMENT OF DELIVERY
53 SYSTEMS FOR PEPTIDE AND
PROTEIN BASED
PHARMACEUTICALS
Considerations are to be given for following
aspects :
 barriers to oral absorption
 Preformulation and Formulation
considerations
 Pharmacokinetic considerations
 Analytical considerations
 Regulatory considerations
BY VISHAL SHARMA

54. 54 REGULATORY CONSIDERATIONS
Four federal agencies regulates biotechnology
products :
1. US Food and drugs administration (USFDA)
2. Environmental protection agency (EPA)
3. Occupational safety and health administration
(OSHA)
4. US Department of agriculture (USDA)
BY VISHAL SHARMA

55. 55
 Nasal route :
Poor permeability is common problem.
Proteolytic enzymes in nasal mucosa degrades the
administered drugs.
 Pulmonary route :
Monodisperse aerosol with a mass median aerodynamic
diameter of 3 µm was reported to achieve alveolar
deposition of 50% or more drug.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

56. 56
 Ocular route :
Ocular absorption can be enhanced by use of
nanoparticles, liposomes, gels, ocular inserts.
 Buccal route :
Mucoadhesive dosage forms can be used.
 Rectal route :
solid dispersion of insulin with mannitol can produce
rapid release of insulin from suppositories.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

57. 57
 Transdermal route :
Skin has very low proteolytic activity.
Two types of iontophoresis are used :
DIRECT CURRENT MODE
PULSE CURRENT MODE
 Vaginal route :
Especially useful to deliver hormones.
Not much accepted in developing countries.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

58. 58 PARENTERAL ROUTE
 Most efficient route.
 Extremely short duration of action.
 Hence, viable drug delivery techniques are to
be developed such as controlled drug delivery
systems for prolongation of biological activity.
 Complications arising from this route are :
Thrombophlebitis
Tissue necrosis
immunogenicity
BY VISHAL SHARMA

59. 59 PARENTERAL ROUTE
BIO DEGRADABLE POLYMERS BASED DRUG
DELIVERY SYSTEMS :
 Microspheres are used as drug carriers which
are made of natural or synthetic polymers.
 Natural polymers have advantage that they are
biocompatible and inexpensive. But they are
lacking purity. Synthetic polymers are PLA,
PGA, PLGA.
 Mechanism of degradation are : firstly random
chain scission occurs. Then soluble oligomeric
products are formed which then gets
converted to soluble monomers.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

60. 60 Cont……………
 PLGA biodegrades into lactic and glycolic
acids. These acids enter into TCA cycle and
then eliminated as carbon dioxide and water.
Injectable controlled release formulations of
certain drugs are formulated using
lactide/glycolide copolymers. Such drugs are
LHRH, calcitonin, insulin.
 Nanoparticles made of PLGA, albumin
polystyrene have potential for targeted drug
delivery.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

61. 61
LIPOSOMES BASED DRUG
DELIVERY SYSTEMS
 Liposomes are microscopic vesicles composed
of one or more lipid layers that enclose
aqueous compartments. Liposome membranes
are semi permeable and can thus be used as
controlled release systems. Liver is natural
target for liposomes.
 Disadvantage is low stability of liposomes.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

62. 62
HYDROGEL BASED DRUG
DELIVERY SYSTEMS
 Hydrogels have advantage of biocompatibility.
Insulin has been incorporated into hydrogels and
widely investigated.
 Emulsions , multiple emulsions, micro emulsions,
resealed erythrocytes can also be used to deliver
protein and peptide drugs.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

63. 63 APPLICATIONS
 Oral peptides today
 Nasal delivery of proteins
 Pulmonary delivery of proteins
 Polymeric protein delivery to increaser half life
 Sustained release peptide systems
 Chemical altered protiens
BY VISHAL SHARMA

64. 64 ORAL PEPTIDES TODAY
 Desmopressin acetate (DDAVP) is a synthetic analogue of
8 arginine vasopressin: ant diuretic hormone. Marketd by
aventis pharmaceutical and is approved for diabetes
insipidus.0.16 % bioavilable
 Novartis and roche pharmaceutical market cyclosporin
(small lyophilic mol. For graft rej.) 30% bioavailibilty
BY VISHAL SHARMA

65. 65 NASAL DELIVERY OF PROTIEN
Brand company drug Used for bioavailibi
name lity
Miacalcin® Novartis Calcitonin osteoporosi 3%
analogue s
Synarel® Hoffman la- LHRH endometros 2.8%
roche agonist is
naferlin
DDAVP Vasopressi Diabetes 3%
n analogue insipidus
BY VISHAL SHARMA

66. 66
PULMONARY DELIVERY OF
PEPTIDE
 Various companies like Nektar , Alkermes ,
Aradigm have developed arosolised insulin
showing about 10% bio available as compared to
SC.
 Particle size in important in transfer of molecule
from pulmonary.
 Size of insulin should be 0.5-3 micron.
 See figure back side
BY VISHAL SHARMA

67. 67
BY VISHAL SHARMA

68. 68 POLYMERIC PROTEINS
 Sustained release protien
 LHRH agonist goserelin with PLGA marketd by
AstraZeneca : administer SC 14-16 gauge needle.
 Octreotide LAR (long acting release) by novartis
for gastroentopancreatic endocrine tumors.
 Neutropin Depot® by Alkermes and Genetech ;
human growth hormones.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

69. 69
CHEMICALLY ALTERED
PROTEINS
 Prepared by PEGylation
 First PGA product FDA approved was Enzon’s Adagen®
(bovine enx. Adenosine deaminase) For ADA def. severe
combined disease.
 Another its product was Oncasper® (l-as.paragenase)
 AMINO ACID SUBSTITUTION
 Rapid insulin Eli-Lilly ; lys pro insulin is an ex.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

70. 70 CONCLUSION
 Protein and peptide based pharmaceuticals are
rapidly becoming a very important class of
therapeutic agents and are likely to replace many
existing organic based pharmaceuticals in the very
near future.
 Peptide and protein drugs will be produced on a
large scale by biotechnology processes and will
become commercially available for therapeutic use.
BY VISHAL SHARMA

71. 71
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72. 72
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livingstone; 2003.p.386-388.
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73. 73
10) Massey FH, Sheliga TA : Development of aggregation resistant insulin
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74. 74
BY VISHAL SHARMA